A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
NEGRO 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO 
DALLAS   •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


A 

SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE 
AMERICAN  NEGRO 


BY 
BENJAMIN  GRIFFITH  BRAWLEY,  A.M.  (Harv.) 

DEAN  AND  PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH  IN  ATLANTA  BAPTIST  COLLEGE 


DECIUS.— Here  lies  the  east:  doth  not  the  day  break  here? 
CASCA.— No. 

CINNA. — O,  pardon,  sir,  it  doth;  and  yon  gray  lines 
That  fret  the  clouds  are  messengers  of  day. 

Shakespeare:  Julius  Casar. 


•NVro  f  nrk 
THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

1913 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1913, 

BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
Set  up  and  etectrotyped.     Published  April,  1913 


PRESS  OF  T.  MOEET  &  SON, 
GREENFIELD,  MASS.,  U.  S.  A. 


DEDICATED 

ON  THE   FIFTIETH  ANNIVERSARY 

OF   NEGRO   EMANCIPATION 

TO   THE   YOUNG  AMERICANS 

WITH   WHOM  IT  HAS   BEEN  MY  PRIVILEGE 

IN  THE   CLASSROOM   TO   SEEK 
THE  BEAUTIFUL  AND  THE  TRUE 


261181 


PREFACE 

This  study  of  the  history  of  the  American  Negro 
endeavors  simply  to  set  forth  the  main  facts  about  the 
subject  that  one  might  wish  to  know,  and  to  supply 
in  some  measure  the  historical  background  for  much 
that  one  reads  to-day  in  newspapers  and  magazines. 
The  book  presupposes  only  an  elementary  knowledge 
of  American  history,  but  it  does  presuppose  so  much. 
The  principle  has  been  adhered  to  throughout  that 
institutions  are  greater  than  men;  hence  little  chron 
icle  of  individual  achievement  has  been  attempted, 
individuals  being  mentioned  generally  only  when  they 
had  to  do  with  significant  movements.  From  the  na 
ture  of  the  discussion  the  treatment  could  hardly  be 
primarily  original,  and  frequent  citation  is  made  to 
the  conclusions  of  investigators  along  special  lines. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  hoped  that  in  more  than  one 
instance  the  presentation  will  be  found  to  be  sub 
stantially  new.  It  has  been  the  aim  to  deal  with 
different  phases  of  the  life  of  the  Negro — political, 
economic,  social,  religious,  cultural — with  some  degree 
of  proportion;  but  because  of  the  great  importance  of 
education  since  the  Civil  War,  special  attention  may 
not  unnaturally  seem  to  be  given  to  this  feature.  For 

vii 


vill  PREFACE 

a  more  intimate  expression  of  some  social  phases  of 
the  subject  than  is  here  attempted,  such  books  as 
Mr.  Baker's  "Following  the  Colour  Line"  and  Dr. 
Washington's  "The  Story  of  the  Negro"  should  be 
read. 

It  is  perhaps  only  when  one  enters  upon  such  a  study 
as  this  that  he  realizes  how  valuable  are  the  investiga 
tions  of  Dr.  W.  E.  B.  DuBois  in  this  field.  For  the 
earlier  years  the  thesis,  "The  Suppression  of  the 
African  Slave-Trade,"  is  really  indispensable;  and  one 
of  the  chapters  is  largely  based  on  the  Atlanta  Univer 
sity  publication,  "The  Negro  Church."  In  a  similar 
way  is  another  chapter  based  upon  the  valuable  study 
by  Dr.  R.  R.  Wright,  Jr.,  entitled  "Self-Help  in  Negro 
Education."  The  chapter  on  "Negro  Achievement  in 
Literature,  Art,  and  Invention"  is  a  revision  and  an 
abridgment  of  my  own  booklet,  "The  Negro  in  Liter 
ature  and  Art,"  published  in  Atlanta  in  1910. 

The  composition  of  the  book  has  been  a  pleasant 
task  because  of  the  sympathetic  interest  it  has 
awakened.  If  I  should  here  set  down  the  names  of  all 
those  who  have  assisted  me  by  conversation,  by  letter, 
or  otherwise,  the  list  would  be  a  long  one.  There  are 
a  few  persons,  however,  to  whom  my  thanks  are  more 
than  ordinarily  due;  but  no  one  whom  I  may  mention 
is  in  any  way  responsible  for  any  statement  herein 
contained,  unless  he  is  directly  quoted.  Of  the  De- 


PREFACE  ix 


partment  of  History  of  the  University  of  Chicago, 
Professor  Shepardson  has  given  me  some  valuable 
suggestions;  Dr.  Jernegan  will  recognize  my  indebted 
ness  to  him  more  than  once;  and  Professor  Dodd,  with 
his  accustomed  generosity,  has  taken  unusual  time 
and  pains  in  helping  me  to  arrive  at  accurate  conclu 
sions.     Mr.  Henry  E.  Baker,  of  the  United  States 
Patent  Office,  the  authority  on  the  subject  of  Negro 
inventors,  has  helped  me  greatly  in  his  special  field. 
Mr.  Baker  is  now  preparing  a  book  on  his  subject. 
The  representatives  of  the  missionary  organizations 
mentioned  in  Chapter  IX;  Dr.  William  Beer,  of  the 
Howard  Memorial  Library,  New  Orleans;  Professor 
Hugh  M.  Browne,  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve;  and 
Mr.  E.  J.  Scott,  of  Tuskegee,  have  kindly  assisted  me 
on  special  points.     I  am  indebted  also  for  helpful 
criticism  to  my  colleagues  at  Howard  University  and 
Atlanta  Baptist  College,  especially  to  Dean  Kelly 
Miller  and  Professor  William  V.  Tunnell,  of  Howard, 
and  to  President  John  Hope,  of  Atlanta  Baptist  Col 
lege,  and  Mr.  Matthew  W.  Bullock,  formerly  also  of 
the  latter  institution.     To  my  father,  Rev.  E.  M. 
Brawley,  I  am  indebted  for  aid  so  various  and  so 
freely  given  that  space  fails  me  either  to  record  the 
instances  or  to  enumerate  the  kinds. 

In  a  work  that  deals  with  so  much  detail  there  will 
almost  inevitably  be  some  errors  of  judgment  or  of 


X  PREFACE 

statement.  If  teachers  and  others  will  kindly  call  my 
attention  to  any  of  these  that  may  be  observed,  I  shall 
be  glad  and  grateful.  I  can  only  say  that  I  have 
striven  to  make  them  few. 

B.  G.  B. 
Atlanta, 

January  i,  1913. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

BEGINNINGS  OF  SLAVERY  IN  THE  COLONIES i 

1.  The  Word  Negro i 

2.  African  Slave  Coast i 

3.  The  Negro  in  Spanish  Exploration 2 

4.  Beginnings  of  the  African  Slave-Trade 3 

5.  Development  of  the  Slave-Trade  by  England 4 

6.  Planting  of  Slavery  in  the  Colonies 5 

(a)  Virginia 5 

(b)  Massachusetts 6 

(c)  New  York 7 

»>(d)  Maryland 

(e)  Delaware  and  New  Jersey 9 

(f)  Pennsylvania 9 

(g)  Connecticut 10 

(h)  Rhode  Island 10 

(i)  New  Hampshire n 

(j)  North  Carolina 1 1 

(k)  South  Carolina n 

(1)  Georgia 12 


CHAPTER  II 

EARLY  SOCIAL  AND  ECONOMIC  ASPECTS  OF  SLAVERY 14 

7.  Servitude  and  Slavery 14 

8.  Efforts  for  the  Restriction  of  Slavery 16 

9.  Increase  of  Negro  Population 17 

10.  Status  of  the  Slave 18 

11.  Free  Negroes  in  the  Colonies 22 

xi 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  III 

PAGE 

THE  REVOLUTIONARY  EPOCH 25 

1 2.  Character  of  the  Age 25 

13.  Lord  Mansfield's  Decision 25 

14.  English  Sentiment 26 

15.  American  Sentiment 27 

16.  The  Negro  in  the  War 28 

17.  Early  Steps  toward  Abolition 3° 

18.  The  Northwest  Territory 33 

19.  The  Constitution  and  Slavery.  .  .  35 

20.  Inventions 3^ 

21.  Influence  of  Toussaint  L'Ouverture 38 

22.  From  1789  to  1817.    New  States  and  Territories.  .  39 

23.  The  Decline  of  Great  Convictions 43 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE  INSTITUTION  OF  SLAVERY 45 

24.  General  View  of  the  System 45 

25.  Procuring  Slaves 46 

26.  The  Middle  Passage 47 

27.  Effects  of  Treatment  on  Slaves 48 

28.  Effects  on  Seamen 49 

29.  Prices  of  Slaves 5° 

30.  Work  of  Slaves 5° 

31.  Plantation  Life 5* 

32.  Slave  Breeding 53 

33.  Religion 54 

34.  Laws  concerning  Slaves.  ...  55 

35.  Punishment 5^ 

36.  Peculiar  Social  Aspects 57 

37.  Argument  for  Slavery. .  .  58 

38.  Economy  of  Slavery 59 

CHAPTER  V 

SLAVERY  A  NATIONAL  ISSUE 64 

39.  Character  of  the  Period 64 


CONTENTS  xiii 

PAGE 

40.  Missouri  Compromise 64 

41.  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line 65 

42.  The  Abolitionists.    Lundy.    Garrison 66 

43.  Other  Leaders 68 

44.  Southern  Sentiment  against  Slavery 70 

45.  State  Rights 71 

46.  Liberia 72 

47.  Abolition  Abroad 73 

48.  Annexation  of  Texas 75 

49.  Compromise  of  1850.  Fugitive  Slave  Law 75 

50.  The  Underground  Railroad 78 

51.  Renewal  of  the  Slave-Trade 79 

52.  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill 81 

53.  The  Anthony  Burns  Incident 81 

54.  Dred  Scott  Decision 83 

55.  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin." - 84 

56.  Henry  Ward  Beecher 85 

57.  Charles  Sumner 86 

58.  John  Brown 87 

CHAPTER  VI    V 

NEGRO  EFFORT  FOR  FREEDOM  AND  CULTURE 89 

59.  Strivings  of  the  Slave 89 

60.  Fugitives 90 

61.  Insurrections 91 

62.  Denmark  Vesey 93 

63.  Nat  Turner 95  - 

64.  The  Amistad  Incident 97 

65.  Story  of  a  Representative  Negro 99 

66.  Free  Negroes 102 

67.  Education  before  the  Civil  War.  . 104) 

68.  The  Negro  in  the  Public  Eye 105 

69.  Sojourner  Truth 106 

70.  Frederick  Douglass 107 

CHAPTER  VII 

EMANCIPATION 109 

71.  Steps  Leading  to  the  Proclamation 109 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

72.  Emancipation  Proclamation 109 

73.  Effects  of  the  Proclamation 112 

74.  The  Negro  in  the  Civil  War 113 

75.  Shaw  and  Higginson 116 

CHAPTER  VIII 

ENFRANCHISEMENT. 118 

76.  Difficulties  of  the  Problem 1 18 

77.  Reconstruction.    The  War  Amendments 119 

78.  Freedmen's  Bureau 1 24 

79.  Representative  Negroes 127 

80.  KuKlux  Klan 128 

81.  Negro  Exodus ! 1 29 

CHAPTER  IX 

MISSIONARY  ENDEAVOR 132 

82.  The  Pioneers 132 

83.  Philanthropy 133 

84.  Howard  University 134 

85.  American  Missionary  Association 135 

86.  American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society 137 

87.  Freedman's  Aid  Society 139 

88.  Presbyterian  Board  of  Missions 140 

89.  Other  Agencies 141 

90.  Scholarship  in  the  Schools i42>- 

91.  Collegiate  Activities 144-f- 

92.  Outlook  for  the  Colleges 144  +- 

93.  Results  of  the  Work 145  j- 

CHAPTER  X 

THE  TUSKEGEE  IDEA 147 

94.  Hampton  Institute 147 

95.  The  Time  and  the  Man 148 

96.  Booker  T.  Washington 149 

97.  Message  to  the  South 150 

98.  Significant  Utterances 151 

99.  Tuskegee  Institute 152 

100.  Offshoots 153 

101.  National  Negro  Business  League 153 


CONTENTS  XV 

CHAPTER  XI 

v/  PAGE 

THE  NEGRO  CHURCH 155 

102.  Sorcery 155 

103.  Beginnings  of  the  Negro  Church 156 

104.  Early  Preachers 158 

105.  Baptists 159 

106.  Methodists 160 

107.  Presbyterians 164 

108.  Congregationalists 164 

109.  Episcopalians  and  Catholics 165 

no.  Summary 165 


X 


CHAPTER  XII 

SELF-HELP  IN  NEGRO  EDUCATION 167 

in.  The  Beginnings 167 

112.  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Schools 168 

1 13.  Other  Methodist  Institutions 169 

1 14.  Baptist  Schools 170 

115.  Self-Help  in  the  Public  Schools 172 

116.  Negro  Philanthropy 174 

117.  Negro  Teachers 175 

118.  Conclusions 176 

CHAPTER  XIII  ^ 

DlSFRANCHISEMENT 177 

119.  Negro  Suffrage  before  the  Civil  War 177  / 

120.  The  Sequel  of  Reconstruction 177 

121.  Progress  of  Disfranchisement 178 

122.  Summary  of  the  Legislation 179 

CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  NEGRO  AS  A  SOLDIER 182 

123.  General  Tribute 182 

124.  Heroism  in  the  Revolutionary  War 183 

125.  The  War  of  1812 183 

126.  Heroism  in  the  Civil  War 185 

127.  The  Spanish- American  War 188 

128.  Brownsville 189 


xvi  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XV  7 

PAGE 

NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENT  IN  LITERATURE,  ART,  AND  INVENTION  .....  192 

129.  Folk-Lore  and  Folk-Music  ..........................  192 

130.  Phillis  Wheatley  ...................................  194 

131.  Paul  Laurence  Dunbar  ..............................  198 

132.  Charles  Waddell  Chesnutt  ......................  203 

133.  W.  E.  Burghardt  DuBois  ...........................  207 

134.  William  Stanley  Braithwaite  .........................  210 

135.  Other  Writers.  .  .  ..................................  211 

136.  The  Stage  ...............................                  .  215 

137.  Orators  .....................................           -  216 

138.  Painters  ..........................................  218 

139.  Sculptors  ...............                                                   •  220 

140.  Vocalists  ........................  .222 

141.  Fisk  Jubilee  Singers  ......................  .225 

142.  Composers  ...............  •  ...........                   .....  226 

143.  Other  Musicians  .........  ..  ...............  228 

144.  Inventors  .........................................  229 


A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE 
AMERICAN   NEGRO 

CHAPTER  I 

BEGINNINGS   OF   SLAVERY  IN  THE   COLONIES 

1.  The    Word    Negro. — The   word    Negro   is   the 
Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  form  of  the  Latin 
adjective  niger,  meaning  black.    As  commonly  used, 
the  word  is  made  to  apply  to  any  and  all  of  the  black 
and  dark  brown  races  of  Africa.    Such  a  usage  is  not 
strictly  correct,  the  term  having  both  a  narrower  and 
a  wider  significance  than  this  would  imply.    In  Africa 
the  real  Negroes  occupy  only  a  relatively  small  part 
of  the  continent,  while  outside  of  Africa,  on  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  there  is  a  branch  of  the  Nigritian 
race  of  people  only  less  important  than  the  main 
branch  of  Negroes  in  Africa. 

2.  African  Slave  Coast.— The  Negroes  who  came  to 
America  as  slaves  were  by  no  means  all  of  exactly  the 
same  race  stock  and  language.    Plantations  frequently 
exhibited  a  variety  of  customs,  and  sometimes  tradi 
tional  enemies  became  brothers  in  servitude.     The 
center  of  the  colonial  slave-trade  was  the  African 


.2  ,  r  J  ,SHORT.  .HISTORY.  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

coast  for  about  two  hundred  miles  east  of  the  great 
Niger  River.  From  this  comparatively  small  region 
came  as  many  slaves  as  from  all  the  rest  of  Africa  to 
gether.  A  number  of  those  who  came  were  of  entirely 
different  race  stock  from  the  Negroes;  some  were 
Moors,  and  a  very  few  were  Malays  from  Madagas 
car.  Such  wide  differences  in  race  and  tribal  origin 
account  for  the  very  marked  distinctions  of  form  and 
feature  to  be  observed  to-day  in  Americans  of  unmixed 
African  descent.  \ 

* A 

3.  The  Negro  in  Spanish  Exploration. — Negroes 
are  mentioned  in  the  very  earliest  accounts  of  explorers 
in  America,  even  by  Columbus  in  the  records  of  his 
voyages.  After  1501  they  became  familiar  personages 
in  the  West  Indies;  and  in  1513  thirty  Negroes  assisted 
Balboa  in  building  the  first  ships  made  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  of  America.  On  his  accession  to  the  Spanish 
throne  Charles  V  granted  "  license  for  the  introduction 
[into  America]  of  Negroes  to  the  number  of  four 
hundred"  (1517),  and  thereafter  importation  to  the 
West  Indies  became  a  thriving  industry.  Those  who 
came  in  these  early  years  were  sometimes  men  of 
considerable  intelligence,  having  been  trained  as  Mo 
hammedans  or  Catholics.  It  was  about  1^25  that 
Negroes  were  first  introduced  within  the  present 
limits  of  the  United  States.  These  were  brought  to  a 
colony  near  what  is  now  Jamestown,  Va.  In  course 


BEGINNINGS  OF  SLAVERY  IN  THE  COLONIES        3 

of  time  the  Negroes  here  were  so  harshly  treated 
that  they  rose  in  insurrection  against  their  oppressors 
and  fired  their  houses.  The  settlement  was  broken 
up,  and  the  Negroes  and  their  Spanish  companions 
returned  to  Hayti,  whence  they  had  come.  The  best 
authenticated  case  of  a  Negro's  leading  in  exploration 
is  that  of  Estevanico,  or  Estevanillo,  one  of  the  four 
jsurvivors  of  the  ill-fated  expedition  of  De  Narvaea, 
who  sailed  from  Spain  June  17,  1527.  The  three  com 
panions  of  this  man  returned  to  Spain;  but  he  himself 
became  a  medicine-man  among  the  natives,  and  later 
became  highly  esteemed  by  those  interested  in  exr 
tending  the  Spanish  domain.  To  him  belongs  the 
credit  of  the  discovery  of  the  Zuni  Indians  and  of  Ne\V 
Mexico.  No  part  played  by  the  Negro  in  these  early 
years,  however,  exercised  any  abiding  influence  on 
the  hisjory  of  the  race  in  the  United  States. 
/4.  Beginnings  of  the  African  Slave-Trade. — The 
revival  of  slavery  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  and 
the  beginning  of  the  system  of  Negro  slavery  were 
due  to  the  commercial  expansion  of  Portugal  in  the 
fifteenth  century .1  In  1441  Prince  Henry  sent  out 
one  Gonzales,  who  captured  three  Moors  on  the 
African  Coast.  These  offered  as  ransom  ten  Negroes 
whom  they  had  taken.  The  Negroes  were  brought  to 
Lisbon  in  1442,  and  in  1444  Prince  Henry  regularly 
began  the  European  trade  from  the  Guinea  Coast-. 


4        A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

For  fifty  years  his  country  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  the 
traffic.  The  slaves  were  taken  at  first  to  Europe,  and 
later  to  the  Spanish  possessions  in  America,  where 
Indian  slavery  did  not  work  well.  Spain  herself 
joined  in  the  trade  in  1517,  and  as  early  as  1530  Wil 
liam  Hawkins,  a  merchant  of  Plymouth,  visited  the 
Guinea  Coast  and  took  away  a  few  slaves.  England 
really  entered  the  field,  however,  with  the  voyage  in 
1562  of  Captain  John  Hawkins,  son  of  William,  who 
also  went  to  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  Captain  Haw 
kins  made  two  other  voyages,  one  in  1564  in  the  good 
ship  Jesus,  and  another,  with  Drake,  in  1567,  taking 
his  slaves  to  the  West  Indies.  Queen  Elizabeth  evi 
dently  regarded  the  opening  of  the  slave-trade  as  a 
worthy  achievement,  for  when  she  made  Hawkins  a 
knight  she  gave  him  for  a  crest  the  device  of  a  Negro's 
head  and  bust  with  the  arms  securely  bound.  France 
joined  in  the  traffic  in  1624,  and  then  Holland,  Den 
mark,  and  the  American  colonies. 

6.  Development  of  the  Slave-Trade  by  England. — 
The  rivalry  between  the  different  countries  of  Europe 
over  the  slave-trade  soon  became  intense;  and  Eng 
land,  with  her  usual  aggressiveness,  soon  assumed  a 
commanding  position.  I  "The  commercial  supremacy 
of  the  Dutch  in  the  first  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen 
tury  excited  the  envy  and  the  emulation  of  the  Eng 
lish.  The  Navigation  Ordinance  of  1651  was  aimed 


BEGINNINGS  OF  SLAVERY  IN  THE  COLONIES        5 

at  them,  and  two  wars  were  necessary  to  wrest  the 
slave-trade  from  them  and  place  it  in  the  hands  of 
the  English."  The  English  trade  proper  began  with 
the  granting  of  rights  to  special  companies,  to  one  in 
1618,  to  another  in  1631,  and  in  1662  to  the  "Com 
pany  of  Royal  Adventurers,"  rechartered  in  1672  as 
the  " Royal  African  Company."  James,  Duke  of 
York,  was  interested  in  this  last  company,  and  it 
agreed  in  a  contract  to  supply  the  West  Indies  with 
3,000  slaves  annually.  In  1698,  on  account  of  the 
incessant  clamor  of  English  merchants,  the  commerce 
was  opened  generally,  and  private  traders  by  act  of 
parliament  were  allowed  to  participate  in  it  on  pay 
ment  of  a  duty  of  ,10  per  cent,  on  English  goods  ex 
ported  to  Africa/  The  market  for  the  slaves  was  the 
American  colonies  of  the  European  countries,  at  first 
especially  the  Spanish  West  Indies.  In  course  of  time 
England  came  to  regard  the  slave-trade  as  of  such 
importance  that  when  in  1713  she  accepted  the  Peace 
of  Utrecht  she  insisted  on  having  awarded  to  her  for 
thirty-three  years  the  exclusive  right  to  transport 
slaves  to  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America.  ^| 

6.  Planting  of  Slavery  in  the  Colonies. — (a)  Vir 
ginia.  It  is  only  for  Virginia  that  we  can  state  with 
definiteness  the  year  in  which  Negro  slaves  were  first 
brought  to  an  English  colony  on  the  mainland.  When 

*  DuBois,  Suppression  of  the  Slave-Trade,  17. 


6        A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

\  legislation  on  the  subject  of  slavery  first  appears  else 
where,  slaves  are  already  present.  In  August,  1619,  a 
Dutch  vessel  brought  to  Jamestown  twenty  Negroes,* 
who  were  sold  into  servitude.  Virginia,  however,  did 
not  give  statutory  recognition  to  slavery  as  a  system 
until  1 66 1,  the  importations  being  too  small  to  make 
the  matter  one  of  importance.  In  this  year,  however, 
an  act  of  assembly  stated  that  Negroes  were  "  in 
capable  of  making  satisfaction  for  the  time  lost  in 
running  away  by  addition  of  time;  f  and  thus 
slavery  gained  a  firm  place  in  the  oldest  of  the 
colonies. 

(b)  Massachusetts.  Negroes  were  first  imported 
into  Massachusetts  from  Barbadoes  a  year  or  two 
before  1638,  but  in  John  Winthrop's  Journal,  under 
date  February  26th  of  this  year,  we  have  positive 
evidence  on  the  subject  as  follows:  "Mr.  Pierce  in  the 
Salem  ship,  the  Desire,  returned  from  the  West  Indies 
after  seven  months.  He  had  been  at  Providence,  and 
brought  some  cotton,  and  tobacco,  and  negroes,  etc., 
from  thence,  and  salt  from  Tertugos.  Dry  fish  and 
strong  liquors  are  the  only  commodities  for  those 
parts.  He  met  there  two  men-of-war,  sent  forth  by 
the  lords,  etc.,  of  Providence  with  letters  of  mart, 
who  had  taken  divers  prizes  from  the  Spaniard  and 

*  DuBois,  Suppression  of  the  Slave-Trade,  17. 
t  Hening,  II,  26. 


BEGINNINGS  OF  SLAVERY  IN  THE  COLONIES        7 

many  negroes."  It  was  in  1641  that  there  was  passed 
in  Massachusetts  the  first  act  on  the  subject  of  slavery; 
and  this  was  the  first  positive  act  in  any  of  the  colonies 
with  reference  to  the  matter.  It  was  enacted  that 
"  there  shall  never  be  any  bond  slavery,  villeinage, 
nor  captivity  among  us,  unless  it  be  lawful  captives, 
taken  in  just  wars,  and  such  strangers  as  willingly  sell 
themselves  or  are  sold  to  us,  and  these  shall  have  all  the 
liberties  and  Christian  usages  which  the  law  of  God 
established  in  Israel  requires."  This  article  clearly 
sanctioned  slavery.  Of  the  three  classes  of  persons 
referred  to,  the  first  was  made  up  of  Indians,  the 
second  of  white  people  under  the  system  of  indenture 
(of  which  more  must  be  said),  and  the  third  of  Negroes. 
In  this  whole  matter,  as  in  many  others,  Massachu 
setts  moved  in  advance  of  the  other  colonies.  The 
first  definitely  to  legalize  slavery,  she  early  became 
the  foremost  representative  of  the  sentiment  against 
the  system.  In  these  early  years  the  New  England 
colonies  were  more  concerned  about  Indians  than 
about  Negroes,  as  the  presence  of  the  former  in  large 
numbers  was  a  constant  menace,  while  Negro  slavery 
had  not  yet  assumed  its  more  serious  aspects. 

(c)  New  York.  Slavery  began  in  New  York  under 
the  Dutch  rule  and  continued  under  the  English.  Be 
fore  or  about  1650  the  Dutch  West  India  Company 
brought  Negro  slaves  to  New  Netherland.  Most  of 


8        A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

these  continued  to  belong  to  the  company,  though 
after  a  period  of  labor  (under  the  common  system  of 
indenture)  some  of  the  more  trusty  were  allowed  to 
have  small  farms,  from  the  produce  of  which  they 
made  return  to  the  company.  Their  children,  how 
ever,  continued  to  be  slaves.  In  1664  New  Netherland 
became  New  York.  The  next  year,  in  the  code  of 
English  laws  that  was  drawn  up,  it  was  enacted  that 
"no  Christian  shall  be  kept  in  bond  slavery,  villein 
age,  or  captivity,  except  who  shall  be  judged  thereunto 
by  authority,  or  such  as  willingly  have  sold  or  shall  sell 
themselves."  As  at  first  there  was  hesitancy  about 
making  Negroes  Christians,  this  act,  like  the  one 
in  Massachusetts,  by  implication  permitted  sla 
very. 

/  (d)  Maryland.  It  was  in  1632  that  the  grant  in 
cluding  what  is  now  the  states  of  Maryland  and  Dela 
ware  was  made  to  George  Calvert,  first  Lord  Balti 
more.  Though  slaves  are  mentioned  earlier,  it  was 
in  1663-4  that  the  Maryland  legislature  passed  its 
first  enactment  on  the  subject  of  slavery.  It  was  de 
clared  that  "all  negroes  and  other  slaves  within  this 
province,  and  all  negroes  and  other  slaves  to  be  here 
inafter  imported  into  this  province,  shall  serve  during 
life;  and  all  children  born  of  any  negro  or  other  slave, 
shall  be  slaves  as  their  fathers  were,  for  the  term  of 
their  lives." 


BEGINNINGS  OF  SLAVERY  IN  THE  COLONIES        9 

(e)  Delaware  and  New  Jersey.     The  real  begin 
nings  of  slavery  in  these  colonies  are  unusually  hazy. 
The  Dutch  introduced  the  system  in  both  New  Jersey 
and  Delaware.    In  the  laws  of  New  Jersey  the  word 
slaves  occurs  as  early  as  1664,  and  acts  for  the  regula 
tion  of  the  conduct  of  those  in  bondage  began  with 
the  practical  union  of  the  colony  with  New  York  in 
1702.    The  lot  of  the  slave  was  somewhat  better  here 
than  in  most  of  the  colonies.    Although  the  system 
was  in  existence  in  Delaware  almost  from  the  begin 
ning  of  the  colony,  it  did  not  receive  legal  recognition 
until  1721,  when  there  was  passed  an  act  providing 
for  the  trial  of  slaves  by  two  justices  and  six  free 
holders.    Delaware  was  influenced  a  good  deal  in  her 
views   by   Pennsylvania,   the   Quaker,  colony  where 
slavery  was  generally  opposed  though  tolerated. 

(f)  Pennsylvania.    Especially  in  its  earlier  years,  by 
reason  of  the  sturdy  and  independent  character  of  its 
settlers,  the  colony  of  Pennsylvania  became  note 
worthy  for  its  opposition  to  the  enslavement  of  Ne 
groes,  and  early  acts  on  the  subject  were  largely  re 
strictive.    When  slavery  is  first  heard  of  in  Pennsyl 
vania,  in  1688,  a  memorial  against  the  system  is 
drawn  up  by  Francis  Daniel  Pastorius  for  the  Ger 
man  town  Quakers.     In  1700  the  legislature  forbade 
the  selling  of  slaves  out  of  the  province  without  their 
consent,  and  the  importation  of  slaves  from  Carolina 


io     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

was  prohibited  in  1705  on  the  ground  that  it  made 
trouble  with  the  Indians  nearer  home. 

(g)  Connecticut.  It  was  almost  by  accident  that 
slavery  was  officially  recognized  in  Connecticut  in 
1650.  The  code  of  laws  compiled  for  the  colony  in 
this  year  was  especially  harsh  on  the  Indians.  It  was 
enacted  that  certain  of  them  who  incurred  the  dis 
pleasure  of  the  colony  might  be  made  to  serve  a  person 
injured  by  them  or  "be  shipped  out  and  exchanged  for 
negroes."  In  1680  the  governor  of  the  colony  in 
formed  the  Board  of  Trade  that  "as  for  blacks  there 
came  sometimes  three  or  four  in  a  year  from  Bar- 
badoes,  and  they  are  usually  sold  at  the  rate  of  £22 
apiece."  These  people  were  regarded  rather  as  serv 
ants  than  as  slaves,  and  early  legislation  was  mainly 
in  the  line  of  police  regulations  designed  to  prevent 
their  running  away. 

(h)  Rhode  Island.  In  1652  it  was  enacted  in  Rhode 
Island  that  all  slaves  brought  into  the  colony  should 
be  set  free  after  ten  years  of  service.  This  law  was  not 
designed,  as  might  be  supposed,  to  restrict  slavery. 
It  was  really  a  step  in  the  evolution  of  the  system, 
and  the  limit  of  ten  years  was  by  no  means  observed. 
"The  only  legal  recognition  of  the  law  was  in  the 
series  of  acts  beginning  January  4,  1763,  to  control 
the  wandering  of  Indian  and  African  slaves  and  serv 
ants,  and  another  beginning  in  April,  1708,  in  which 


BEGINNINGS  OF  SLAVERY  IN  THE  COLONIES      II 

the  slave-trade  was  indirectly  legalized  by  being 
taxed."  *  /'In  course  of  time  Rhode  Island  became 
the  greatest  slave-trader  in  the  country,  becoming  a 
sort  of  clearing-house  for  the  other  colonies."  f 

(i)  New  Hampshire.  This  colony,  profiting  by  the 
experience  of  its  neighbor,  Massachusetts,  deemed  it 
best  from  the  beginning  to  discourage  slavery.  There 
were  so  few  Negroes  in  the  colony  as  to  form  a  quan 
tity  almost  negligible.  Still,  the  system  of  slavery  was 
recognized,  an  act  being  passed  in  1714  to  regulate 
the  conduct  of  slaves,  and  another  four  years  later  to 
regulate  the  conduct  of  masters. 

(j)  North  Carolina.  In  this  colony,  even  more 
than  in  most  of  the  others,  the  system  of  Negro  slavery 
was  long  controlled  by  custom  rather  than  by  legal 
enactment.  It  was  recognized  by  law  in  1715,  how 
ever,  and  police  laws  to  govern  the  life  of  slaves  were 
enacted. 

(k)  South  Carolina.  The  history  of  slavery  in 
South  Carolina  is  peculiarly  noteworthy.  The  nat 
ural  resources  of  this  colony  offered  a  ready  home  for 
the  system,  and  the  laws  here  formulated  were  as  ex 
plicit  as  any  ever  enacted.  Slaves  were  first  imported 
from  Barbadoes,  and  their  status  received  official  con 
firmation  in  1682.  By  1720  the  number  had  increased 
to  12,000,  the  white  people  numbering  only  9,000. 

*  Alexander,  136.  t  DuBois,  34. 


12      A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

By  1698  such  was  the  fear  from  the  preponderance  of 
the  Negro  population  that  a  special  act  was  passed 
to  encourage  white  immigration.  Legislation  "for  the 
better  ordering  of  slaves"  was  made  in  1690,  and  in 
1712  the  first  regular  slave  law  was  enacted.  Once 
before  1713,  the  year  of  the  Assiento  Contract  of  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht,  and  several  times  after  this  date, 
prohibitive  duties  were  placed  on  Negroes  to  guard 
against  their  too  rapid  increase.  By  1734,  however, 
importation  had  again  reached  large  proportions;  and 
in  1740,  in  consequence  of  an  insurrection  led  by  a 
slave  named  Cato,  a  prohibitive  duty  several  times 
larger  than  the  previous  one  was  placed  upon  Negroes 
brought  into  the  province.  The  whole  system  of 
slavery  in  South  Carolina  was  very  profitable,  Negroes 
being  naturally  adapted  to  life  in  the  lowlands. 

(1)  Georgia.  The  colony  of  Georgia  was  chartered 
in  1732  and  actually  founded  the  next  year.  Ogle- 
thorpe's  idea  was  that  the  colony  should  be  a  refuge  for 
persecuted  Protestants  and  the  debtor  classes  of  Eng 
land.  Slavery  was  forbidden  on  the  ground  that 
Georgia  was  to  defend  the  other  English  colonies 
from  the  Spaniards  on  the  south,  and  that  it  would 
not  be  able  to  do  this  if,  like  South  Carolina,  it  dis 
sipated  its  energies  in  guarding  Negro  slaves.  For 
years  the  development  of  Georgia  was  slow,  and  the 
prosperous  condition  of  South  Carolina  constantly 


BEGINNINGS  OF  SLAVERY  IN  THE  COLONIES      13 

suggested  to  the  planters  that  "the  one  thing  need 
ful"  for  their  highest  welfare  was  slavery.  Again  and 
again  were  petitions  addressed  to  the  trustees,  George 
Whitefield  being  among  those  who  most  urgently 
advocated  the  innovation.  Moreover,  Negroes  from 
South  Carolina  were  sometimes  hired  for  life,  and 
purchases  were  sometimes  openly  made  in  Savannah. 
It  was  not  until  1749,  however,  that  the  trustees 
yielded  to  the  request.  In  1755  the  legislature  passed 
an  act  that  regulated  the  conduct  of  the  slaves,  and 
in  1765  a  more  regular  slave  code  was  adopted.  Thus 
did  slavery  finally  gain  a  foothold  in  what  was  destined 
to  become  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  Southern 
states. 


CHAPTER  II 

EARLY  SOCIAL  AND  ECONOMIC  ASPECTS  OF  SLAVERY 

7.  Servitude  and  Slavery. — Negro  slavery  was  not 
the  only  sort  of  bondage  known  in  America  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  It  was  in  fact 
because  of  a  system  already  in  existence  that  it  became 
permanently  fixed  in  the  colonies.  This  system  was 
known  as  servitude  or  indenture,  and  it  explains  many 
of  the  early  acts  with  reference  to  the  Negroes,  es 
pecially  those  about  intermarriage  with  white  people. 
Servitude  was  "  a  legalized  status  of  Indian,  white,  and 
negro  servants  preceding  slavery  in  most,  if  not  all,  of 
the  English  mainland  colonies."  For  the  origins  of 
the  system  one  must  go  back  to  social  conditions  in 
England  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Throughout 
this  century  the  lot  of  the  workingmanj  especially  the 
agricultural  laborer,  left  much  to  be  desired.  In  the 
earlier  years  mowers  received  for  a  day's  work  what 
would  be  now  from  8  to  25  cents.  The  price  of  wheat 
in  1564  had  been  193.  a  quarter  and  wages  had  been 
7d.  a  day.  In  1610,  however,  wheat  was  355.  a 

*  New  International  Encyclopedia,  Article  Slavery. 
14 


EARLY  ASPECTS  OF  SLAVERY  15 

quarter  and  wages  still  the  same.  Rents  were  con 
stantly  increasing  moreover,  and  many  persons  per 
ished  from  simple  starvation.  In  the  hard  times 
pressing  upon  them  many  Englishmen,  hearing  of 
the  great  undeveloped  country  of  Virginia,  determined 
to  try  their  lot  across  the  seas.  Hundreds,  however, 
were  too  poor  to  pay  for  their  transportation,  and 
accordingly  sold  themselves  into  servitude  for  a  num 
ber  of  years  to  pay  for  the  transfer.  More  important 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  system  of  servitude  itself, 
however,  was  the  number  of  persons  brought  hither 
by  involuntary  means.  Political  offenders,  vagrants, 
and  other  criminals  were  thus  sent  to  the  colonies,  and 
many  persons,  especially  boys  and  girls,  were  kid 
napped  in  the  streets  of  London  and  " spirited"  away. 
It  is  easy  to  see  how  by  such  a  method  as  this  last  the 
system  became  a  highly  profitable  one  for  shipmasters 
and  those  in  connivance  with  them.  Indentured  serv 
ants  were  purchased  by  the  planters  in  the  colonies 
either  from  kidnappers  or  the  government,  the  term 
of  servitude  being  generally  five  or  seven  years ;  and  in 
the  laws  made  for  the  regulation  of  their  conduct  may 
be  found  the  germ  of  all  the  slave  codes  of  the  colonies. 
As  having  the  status  of  an  apprentice  the  servant 
could  sue  in  court  and  was  even  allowed  "  freedom 
dues"  at  the  expiration  of  his  term.  He  could  not 
vote,  however,  could  not  bear  weapons,  and  of  course 


1 6     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

not  hold  office.  JThe  first  Negroes  brought  to 

«*^   _  ~ "     —  i  -^ 

the  colonies  were  technically  servants.  Generally  as 
Negro  slavery  advanced  white  servitude  declined;  and 
"servitude  became  slavery  when  to  such  incidents 
as  alienation,  disfranchisement,  whipping,  and  limited 
marriage,  were  added  those  of  perpetual  service  and 
a  denial  of  civil,  juridical,  marital  and  property  rights 
as  well  as  the  denial  of  the  possession  of  children."  * 
In  some  colonies,  even  after  slavery  was  well  estab 
lished,  the  white  men  and  women  were  retained  as 
domestic  servants,  some  even  as  secretaries  or  tutors, 
the  Negroes  being  put  to  work  in  the  fields.  From  a 
purely  economic  point  of  view  the  inferiority  of  the 
system  of  indenture  to  that  of  slavery  was  fully  ap 
parent,  and  as  soon  as  Negroes  began  to  be  imported 
in  considerable  numbers,  servitude  was  destined  to 
pass  away.  The  decline  of  the  system  after  the  last 
quarter  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  very  rapid, 
though  it  did  not  finally  pass  in  all  its  phases  before 
the  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  War. 

8.  Efforts  for  the  Restriction  of  Slavery. — In  spite 
of  its  great  economic  advantages  over  white  servitude, 
the  system  of  Negro  slavery  did  not  develop  with 
out  considerable  opposition.  Germantown's  protest 
against  slavery,  made  in  the  year  1688,  was  "the  first 
formal  action  ever  taken  against  the  barter  in  human 

*  New  International  Encyclopedia,  Article  Slavery. 


EARLY  ASPECTS  OF  SLAVERY  17 

flesh  within  the  boundaries  of  the  United  States."  * 
But  in  other  places,  as  well  as  Pennsylvania,  there 
soon  developed  moral  sentiment  against  the  institu 
tion,  and  it  was  only  the  working  of  economic  forces 
that  finally  fastened  it  on  the  colonies.  Even  when 
an  individual  colony  was  impelled  by  philanthropic 
motives,  it  had  to  reckon  with  the  cupidity  of  English 
traders.  Thus  before  1772  Virginia  passed  33  acts 
looking  toward  a  prohibition  of  the  importation  of 
slaves;  but  in  every  instance  the  act  was  disallowed  by 
England.  In  the  far  South,  especially  in  South  Caro 
lina,  where  the  Negroes  soon  outnumbered  the  white 
people,  constant  fear  of  insurrections  led  to  increas 
ingly  heavy  duties  on  slaves  imported.  In  spite  of 
all  such  spasmodic  attempts  for  restriction,  however, 
the  system  of  Negro  slavery,  once  well  started,  de- 
velopecLarjace. 

9.  Increase  of  Negro  Population.— Largely  on  ac- 
xcount  of  the  system  of  indenture,  Negro  slavery  as  an 
institution  developed  very  slowly  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  It  was  in  the  eighteenth  century  that  it 
began  to  grow  by  leaps  and  bounds.  In  1625,  six 
years  after  the  firstfr  Negroes  were  brought  to  the  col 
ony,  there  were  in  Virginia  only  23  Negroes,  12  male, 
ii  female. f  In  1659  there  were  only  300  and  in  1683 

*  Faust,  I,  45. 

t  Virginia  Magazine  of  History,  VII,  364. 


1 8      A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

3,000.  In  1708,  however,  in  Virginia  there  were 
12,000  Negroes,  in  1715,  23,000,  in  1756,  120,156,  and 
in  1774,  200,000.  In  1715  there  were  in  all  the  colonies 
about  58,850.*  These  represented  about  14  per  cent, 
of  the  total  population.  When  the  first  census  was 
taken  in  1790,  the  percentage  of  Negroes  to  total 
population  was  19.3,  757,208  being  the  number  in  the 
states.  Of  these  697,897  were  slaves,  Virginia  being 
first  with  293,427,  and  South  Carolina,  Maryland,  and 
North  Carolina  following  with  a  little  more  than 
100,000  each.  The  percentage  has  never  been  higher 
than  19.3.  In  the  nineteenth  century,  except  in  two 
decades,  it  was  constantly  lowered.  Thus,  although 
in  1900  there  were  8,840,789  Negroes  in  the  United 
States,  these  represented  but  n.6  per  cent,  of  the 
total  population. 

10.  Status  of  the  Slave. — What  now  was  the  exact 
position  in  society  of  this  large  addition  to  the  body 
politic?  The  whole  system  of  Negro  slavery  was  dis 
tinctively  an  evolution.  As  the  first  Negroes  were 
taken  by  pirates,  the  rights  of  ownership  could  not 
legally  be  given  to  those  who  purchased  them;  hence 
slavery  by  custom  preceded  slavery  by  statute.  Little 
by  little  the  colonies  drifted  into  the  sterner  system. 
The  transition  is  marked  by  such  an  act  as  that  of 
1652  in  Rhode  Island,  which  permitted  a  Negro  to  be 
*  Blake,  378. 


EARLY  ASPECTS  OF  SLAVERY  ig 

bound  for  ten  years.  By  the  time  it  had  become  gen 
erally  enacted  or  understood  in  the  colonies  that  a 
child  born  of  slave  parents  should  serve  for  life,  a  new 
question  had  arisen,  that  of  the  issue  of  a  free  person 
and  a  slave.  This  led  Virginia  in  1662  to  lead  the  way 
with  an  act  to  the  effect  that  the  status  of  a  child 
should  be  determined  by  that  of  the  mother,  which 
act  both  gave  to  slavery  the  sanction  of  law  and  made 
it  hereditary.  In  1705  it  was  enacted  in  Virginia  that 
a  slave  might  be  inventoried  as  real  estate.  As  prop 
erty  then  there  was  nothing  to  prevent  a  slave  from 
being  separated  from  his  family.  Thus  after  nearly  a 
hundred  years  since  the  introduction  of  the  first 
Negroes,  slave  codes  began  to  take  on  some  degree  of 
definiteness  and  uniformity.  After  all,  however,  the 
colonists  found  that  they  were  not  dealing  with 
simple  property,  but  with  human  beings;  thus  in  Vir 
ginia  in  1 80 1  on  the  score  of  humanity  some  attempt 
seems  to  have  been  made  to  prevent  the  separation  of 
a  young  child  from  its  mother.  In  Maryland  moreover 
the  problem  of  the  relation  of  the  Negro  slave  and  the 
indentured  white  servant  was  unusually  acute.  A 
section  of  the  law  of  1664,  designed  to  discourage 
intermarriage  between  white  women  and  Negro 
slaves,  enacted  that  a  white  woman  so  intermarrying 
should  serve  the  master  of  her  husband  as  long  as  her 
husband  lived,  and  that  the  issue  of  such  marriages 


20     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

should  be  slaves  for  life.  An  interesting  situation  now 
developed.  In  order  to  prolong  the  indenture  of  their 
white  female  servants,  many  masters  encouraged 
them  to  marry  Negro  slaves.  To  prevent  this  a  new 
act  declared  that  all  white  women  so  intermarrying 
should  be  free  at  once,  but  that  the  minister  con 
ducting  the  ceremony  and  the  master  or  mistress  pro 
moting  the  marriage  were  to  pay  a  fine  of  ten  thou 
sand  pounds  of  tobacco.  In  the  other  Southern 
colonies  the  rule  in  the  matter  of  the  child  of  the  Negro 
father  and  the  indentured  white  mother  was  that  the 
child  should  be  bound  in  servitude  for  thirty  or 
thirty-one  years.  With  the  passing  of  the  system  of 
servitude,  however,  passed  also  for  the  most  part  the 
intermarriage  of  the  races.  As  a  slave  the  Negro  had 

none  of  the  ordinary  civil  or  personal  rights  of 

—~—  • — • — — — — — * 

citizenT  In  a  criminal  case  he  could  be  arrested,  tried, 

and  condemned  with  but  one  witness  against  him, 
and  he  could  be  sentenced  without  a  jury.  In  the 
matter  of  religion  and  baptism  a  peculiar  problem 
arose.  Zealous  for  religion  as  the  colonists  were,  they 
made  little  attempt  to  convert  the  Negroes  in  the 
earlier  decades  of  the  seventeenth  century,  there 
being  a  very  general  opinion  that  neither  Christian 
brotherhood  nor  the  law  of  England  would  justify  the 
holding  of  Christians  as  slaves.  In  course  of  time, 
however,  they  lost  their  scruples,  and  it  became 


EARLY  ASPECTS  OF  SLAVERY  21 

generally  understood  that  conversion  and  bap 
tism  did  not  make  a  slave  free,  Virginia  in  1667 
enacting  a  law  to  this  effect.  Generally  it  was 
only  on  the  economic  side  that  hope  remained 
for  the  slave.  Sometimes  he  was  allowed  to 
hire  out  his  time.  If  he  earned  more  than  the 
sum  (about  $100)  yearly  due  his  master,  he 
might  begin  to  accumulate  a  little  money  on 
his  own  account  and  ultimately  purchase  his  free 
dom.  Such  cases,  however,  were  exceptional.  To  the 
great  mass  of  Negroes  in  the  colonies  the  outlook  ap 
peared  hopeless  enough.  Their  general  situation  be 
fore  the  courts  may  be  illustrated  from  the  history  of 
New  York.  The  slave  code  of  this  colony  was  harsh, 
and  there  seems  to  have  been  here  a  constant  fear  of 
insurrections.  One  such  uprising  was  attempted  in 
the  city  of  New  York  in  1712.  In  1741  this  place  was 
the  scene  of  a  most  unhappy  panic.  The  city  was 
then  a  thriving  town  of  ten  thousand  inhabitants. 
Nine  fires  in  rapid  succession  brought  the  city  to  a 
state  of  terror  and  to  the  belief  that  the  free  Negroes 
and  slaves  were  conspiring  to  burn  the  city.  Every 
one  of  the  eight  lawyers  in  the  town  appeared  against 
the  Negroes,  who  had  no  counsel  and  who  were  con 
victed  on  most  insufficient  evidence.  The  prosecu 
tions  extended  through  the  whole  summer,  and  before 
the  fury  subsided  fourteen  of  the  unfortunate  people 


22      A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

were  burned  at  the  stake,  eighteen  were  hanged,  and 
seventy-one  deported.* 

11.  Free  Negroes  in  the  Colonies. — Along  with  the 
general  increase  of  the  Negro  population  grew  also 
the  class  of  free  persons  of  color.  A  Negro  gained  his 
freedom  in  one  of  several  ways.  Sometimes  a  scrupu 
lous  master  at  his  death  gave  several  of  his  slaves 
their  liberty.  Occasionally  a  slave  became  free  by 
reason  of  some  act  of  service  to  the  commonwealth, 
as  in  the  case  of  one  Will,  slave  belonging  to  Robert 
Ruffin,  of  the  county  of  Surry  in  Virginia,  who  in  1710 
divulged  a  conspiracy.!  There  is  moreover  on  record 
a  case  of  an  indentured  Negro  servant,  one  John 
Geaween,  who  by  his  unusual  thrift  in  the  matter  of 
some  hogs  which  he  raised  on  the  share  system  with 
his  master,  was  able  as  early  as  1641  to  purchase  his 
own  son  from  another  master,  to  the  perfect  satisfac 
tion  of  all  concerned.^  Noteworthy  also  in  this 
connection  are  those  persons,  a  very  large  class,  the 
descendants  of  Negro  fathers  and  indentured  white 
mothers,  who  ordinarily  gained  their  freedom  after 
thirty  or  thirty-one  years  of  service.  Thus  in  one  way 
or  another  the  number  of  free  persons  of  color  in 
creased.  When  the  first  census  was  taken  in  1790, 

*  The  story  is  fully  told  by  Williams,  I,  144-170. 

t  Hening,  III,  537. 

}  Virginia  Magazine  of  History,  X,  281. 


EARLY  ASPECTS  OF  SLAVERY  23 

they  formed  nearly  8  per  cent,  of  the  total  Negro 
population  of  the  states,  numbering  59,311.  The 
position  of  these  people  was  a  very  anomalous  one.  In 
the  South  all  sorts  of  restrictive  laws  were  placed  upon 
them,  but,  with  the  exception  of  those  pertaining  to 
civil  rights,  these  were  frequently  disregarded.  In 
Virginia  free  Negroes  seem  to  have  had  the  privilege 
of  voting  until  1723,  for  an  act  of  this  year  deprived 
them  of  it.  Generally  in  the  South  Negroes  could 
not  vote,  could  not  bear  civil  office,  could  not  give 
testimony  in  court  in  cases  involving  white  men,  and 
could  be  employed  only  for  fatigue  duty  in  the  militia. 
They  could  not  purchase  white  servants,  could  not 
intermarry  with  white  people,  and  had  also  to  be 
very  circumspect  in  their  personal  relations  with 
slaves.  No  deprivation  of  privilege,  however,  relieved 
them  of  the  obligation  to  pay  taxes.  Such  advantages 
as  the  free  Negro  possessed  were  mainly  economic. 
The  money  gained  from  his  labor  was  his  own;  he 
might  become  skilled  at  a  trade;  he  might  buy  land; 
he  might  buy  slaves;  he  might  even  buy  his  wife  and 
child  if,  as  most  frequently  happened,  they  were 
slaves;  and  he  might  have  one  gun  with  which  to  pro 
tect  his  home.*  Once  in  a  long  while  he  might  find 
some  private  opportunity  for  education.  In  the  North 
his  political  condition  was  somewhat  better  and  more 
*Hening,  IV,  131. 


24     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

avenues  for  education  were  open  to  him;  but  along 
economic  lines  his  lot  was  even  harder  than  in  the 
South.  Everywhere  his  position  was  a  difficult  one- 
He  was  most  frequently  regarded  as  idle  and  shiftless, 
and  as  a  breeder  of  mischief;  but  if  he  showed  unusual 
thrift  he  might  be  forced  to  leave  his  home  and  go 
elsewhere.  Liberty,  the  boon  of  every  citizen,  the 
free  Negro  did  not  possess.  For  all  the  finer  things 
of  life — the  things  that  make  life  worth  living — the 
lot  that  was  his  was  only  less  hard  than  that  of  the 
slave. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  REVOLUTIONARY  EPOCH 

12.  Character  of  the  Age.— The  period  of  the  I 
American  Revolution  in  its  widest  limits  may  be  made  \ 
to  include  that  of  the  War  of  1812  as  well  as  that  of 
the  Revolution  itself.  The  progress  of  the  cause  of 
the  Negro  in  this  period  is  to  be  explained  by  two 
great  forces  which  were  being  felt  at  the  time  in 
Europe  as  well  as  in  America.  One  of  these  was  the 
humanitarian  impulse  which  found  such  abundant 
expression  in  the  poems  of  William  Cowper.  The 
other  influence  was  the  general  diffusion  of  liberal 
ideas  which  in  England  began  the  agitation  for  a 
free  press  and  for  parliamentary  reform,  which  in 
France  accounted  largely  for  the  French  Revolution, 
and  which  in  America  led  to  the  revolt  from  Great 
Britain.  No  patriot  could  come  under  the  influence 
of  either  one  of  these  forces  without  having  his  heart 
and  his  sense  of  justice  moved  to  some  degree  in  be 
half  of  the  slave. 

13.  Lord    Mansfield's    Decision. — In    November, 
1769,  Charles  Stewart,  once  a  merchant  in  Norfolk 

25 


26      A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

and  later  receiver  general  of  the  customs  of  North 
America,  took  to  England  his  African  slave,  James 
Somerset,  who,  becoming  sick,  was  turned  adrift  by 
his  master.  Later  Somerset  recovered  and  Stewart 
seized  him,  intending  to  have  him  borne  out  of  the 
country  and  sold  in  Jamaica.  Somerset  objected  to 
this  and  by  so  doing  raised  the  important  legal  ques 
tion,  Did  a  slave  by  being  brought  to  England  become 
free?  The  case  received  a  great  deal  of  attention,  for 
everybody  realized  that  the  decision  would  be  far- 
reaching  in  its  consequences.  After  it  was  argued  at 
three  different  sittings,  Lord  Mansfield,  Chief  Justice 
of  England,  in  1772  handed  down  from  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench  the  decision  that  as  soon  as  ever  any 
slave  set  his  foot  upon  the  soil  of  England,  he  became 
free. 

14.  English  Sentiment. — This  judgment  may  be 
taken  as  fairly  representative  of  the  general  progress 
that  the  cause  of  the  Negro  was  making  in  England 
at  the  time.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  senti 
ment  against  the  slave-trade  began  to  develop  among 
the  Christian  people  of  the  country.  Many  pamphlets 
telling  of  the  evils  of  slavery  were  circulated,  and  as 
early  as  1776  a  motion  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave- 
trade  was  made  in  the  House  of  Commons.  John 
Wesley  preached  against  the  system,  Adam  Smith  in 
his  Wealth  of  Nations  showed  its  ultimate  expensive- 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  EPOCH  27 

ness,  and  Edmund  Burke  declared  that  the  slavery 
endured  by  the  Negroes  in  the  English  settlements  was 
worse  than  that  ever  suffered  by  any  other  people. 
The  list  of  those  who  worked  against  the  evil  is  a  long 
one.  Special  mention,  however,  must  be  made  of 
two  of  the  greatest  friends  of  the  slave — Thomas 
Clarkson  and  William  Wilberforce.  Clarkson  was 
strong  in  investigation  and  in  organizing  the  move 
ment  against  slavery,  and  Wilberforce  was  the  parlia 
mentary  champion  of  the  cause.  For  about  twenty 
years,  assisted  by  such  debaters  as  Burke,  Fox,  and  the 
younger  Pitt,  Wilberforce  worked  until  on  March  25th, 
1807,  the  bill  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  re 
ceived  the  royal  assent.  Even  then  his  work  was  not 
finished,  as  slavery  itself  was  yet  to  be  abolished  in  the 
English  dominions.  How  this  was  done  we  shall  see 
in  a  later  chapter. 

15.  American  Sentiment. — The  high  thought  of 
England  necessarily  found  reflection  in  America, 
where  the  logic  of  the  position  of  the  patriots  forced 
them  to  defend  the  cause  of  liberty  at  all  times.  As 
early  as  1774,  largely  through  the  influence  of  the 
Quakers,  the  first  anti-slavery  society  was  organized 
in  Philadelphia,  with  Benjamin  Franklin  as  its  presi 
dent.  John  Adams  thought  that  "  every  measure  of 
prudence  ought  to  be  assumed  for  the  eventual  total 
extirpation  of  slavery  from  the  United  States." 


28     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

Thomas  Jefferson  denounced  the  system  as  endan 
gering  the  very  principle  of  liberty  on  which  the  state 
was  founded,  "a  perpetual  exercise  of  the  most  unre 
mitting  despotism  on  the  one  part,  and  degrading  sub 
mission  on  the  other."  Patrick  Henry  declared  of  the 
system  of  slavery,  "I  will  not — I  cannot  justify  it!  I 
believe  a  time  will  come  when  an  opportunity  will  be 
offered  to  abolish  this  lamentable  evil.  Everything 
we  can  do  is  to  improve  it,  if  it  happens  in  our  day;  if 
not,  let  us  transmit  to  our  descendants^  together  with 
our  slaves,  a  pity  for  their  unhappy  lot,  and  an  ab 
horrence  for  slavery."  Washington  desired  nothing 
more  than  "  to  see  some  plan  adopted  by  which  slavery 
might  be  abolished  by  law,"  and  ultimately  liberated 
his  own  slaves.  These  noble  sentiments  made  some 
progress,  but  generally  the  people  did  not  respond  to 
the  high  thought  of  the  patriots.  They  were  as  yet 
moved  by  feelings  of  interest  rather  than  of  human 
ity,  and  in  1785,  in  a  letter  to  La  Fayette,  Washington 
said  that  petitions  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  pre 
sented  to  the  Virginia  legislature  could  scarcely  obtain 
a  hearing. 

16.  The  Negro  in  the  War. — In  November,  1775, 
Lord  Dunmore,  the  unpopular  governor  of  Virginia, 
proclaimed  freedom  to  all  slaves  who  would  fight 
against  the  American  revolutionists.  He  and  other 
English  leaders  thought  to  weaken  the  colonies  by 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  EPOCH  29 

thus  depriving  them  of  a  labor  supply  for  the  throwing 
up  of  fortifications  and  the  raising  of  provisions.  As 
a  result  of  this  action,  thousands  of  Negroes  joined 
the  British  ranks.  The  colonies,  filled  with  alarm, 
changed  their  attitude  toward  the  slaves  and  began 
to  permit  Negroes  to  enlist,  their  masters  receiving 
payment  from  the  public  treasury.  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  thus  accepted 
the  services  of  slaves,  and  severe  penalties  were 
threatened  upon  those  who  took  up  arms  against  the 
American  cause.  It  was  designed  to  organize  in  the 
South,  especially  in  South  Carolina,  an  army  con 
sisting  of  two,  three,  or  four  battalions  of  Negroes. 
Colonel  Laurens  of  the  Continental  Army  had  charge 
of  the  project.  Able-bodied  slaves  were  to  be  paid 
for  by  Congress  at  the  rate  of  $1,000  each,  and  a  slave 
who  served  well  to  the  end  of  the  war  was  to  receive 
his  freedom  and  $50  in  addition.  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia,  distrustful  of  the  plan,  did  not  encourage  or 

co-operate  with  Laurens;  so  he  did  not  succeed  in  his 

t 

work.  Williams  estimates  that  altogether  about  three 
thousand  Negroes  served  in  the  American  army. 
generally,  howeverT  the  war  had  little  effert  on  the  jot 
of  the  Negroes.  At  the  close  of  the  conflict  New  York, 
Rhode  Island,  and  Virginia  freed  their  slave  soldiers; 
but  for  the  most  part  the  system  remained  as  before, 


30     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

the  English  being  bound  by  the  treaty  of  peace  not  to 
carry  away  any  Negroes.  The  race  furnished  several 
individual  heroes  in  the  war,  however;  and  some  of 
these  will  receive  mention  in  our  chapter  on  "The 
Negro  as  a  Soldier." 

17.  Early  Steps  toward  Abolition. — Various  tend 
encies  in  the  history  of  the  colonies  with  reference 
to  the  slave-trade  may  be  observed.  From  1638  to 
1664  there  was  a  tendency  to  take  a  moral  stand 
against  the  traffic,  as  in  the  laws  of  New  England,  the 
plan  for  the  settlement  of  Georgia,  and  the  early  pro 
test  from  the  Germans  in  Pennsylvania.  The  period 
1664-1760  was  marked  by  the  steady  growth  of  a 
spirit  opposed  to  the  long  continuance  of  the  traffic, 
and  observable  in  various  prohibitive  duties.  From 
1760  to  1787  there  were  pronounced  efforts  to  regu 
late  or  totally  prohibit  the  trade.*  The  Continental 
Congress  made  a  general  declaration  against  the  im 
portation  of  slaves,  and  the  first  draft  of  the  Declara 
tion  of  Independence  arraigned  Great  Britain  as  the 
real  promoter  of  slavery  in  America.  The  Articles  of 
Confederation  in  1781  gave  the  states  the  power  to 
regulate  this  as  every  other  form  of  commerce.  In 
1784  the  Congress,  assembled  in  Philadelphia,  made  a 
declaration  of  colonial  rights.  Fourteen  articles  were 

*  This  statement  of  tendencies  is  from  DuBois,  Suppression  of  the 
Slave-Trade,  39. 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  EPOCH  31 

agreed  on  as  forming  the  basis  of  an  "  American  Asso 
ciation."  In  one  the  slave-trade  was  denounced  and 
entire  abstinence  from  it  and  from  any  trade  with 
those  concerned  in  it  was  enjoined  on  the  members  of 
the  Association.  For  more  definite  enactments  we 
must  turn  to  the  work  of  the  several  states.  Virginia 
by  protest  in -1772,  Connecticut  by  statute  in  1774, 
and  Delaware  by  her  Constitution  in  1776  attempted 
to  stop  the  slave-trade;  and  Virginia  in  1778  was  the 
first  political  community  to  prohibit  it  with  efficient 
penalties.  Delaware's  article  against  the  slave-trade 
was  the  first  such  in  a  state  Constitution;  but,  as  we 
shall  see  later,  it. is  to  Vermont,  that  was  still  a  terri 
tory  at  this  time,  that  the  honor  of  taking  the  first 
step  for  the  real  abolition  of  slavery  belongs.  In  1782 
the  old  Virginia  statute  forbidding  emancipation  ex 
cept  for  meritorious  services  was  repealed.  The  repeal 
was  in  force  for  ten  years,  in  which  time  private 
emancipations  were  numerous.  Maryland  soon  passed 
acts  similar  to  those  in  Virginia  prohibiting  the  further 
introduction  of  slaves  and  removing  restraints  on 
emancipation.  New  York  and  New  Jersey  followed 
the  example  of  Virginia  and  Maryland  in  prohibiting 
the  further  introduction  of  slaves  either  from  Africa 
or  from  some  other  states,  but  general  emancipation 
was  not  declared  in  these  states  for  many  years.  In 
1780,  in  spite  of  considerable  opposition  because  of 


32      A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

the  course  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  the  Pennsyl 
vania  Assembly  passed  an  act  forbidding  the  further 
introduction  of  slaves,  and  giving  freedom  to  all  per 
sons  thereafter  born  in  the  state.  Similar  provisions 
were  enacted  in  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  in 
1784.  In  Massachusetts  as  early  as  1701  the  town  of 
Boston  had  instructed  its  representatives  in  the 
general  assembly  to  propose  "putting  an  end  to 
Negroes  being  slaves."  This  province  was  much 
agitated  about  slavery  from  1766  to  1773,  and  frequent 
attempts  were  made  to  restrict  further  importations 
of  Negro  slaves.  In  this  period  a  Negro  took  his 
case  before  the  Supreme  Court  to  decide  the  ques 
tion,  Under  the  laws  of  Massachusetts  could  a  Negro 
be  a  slave?  His  argument  was  that  the  royal  charter 
declared  that  all  persons  residing  in  the  province  were 
to  be  as  free  as  the  king's  subjects  in  Great  Britain, 
that  by  Magna  Charta  no  subject  could  be  deprived  of 
liberty  except  by  the  judgment  of  his  peers,  and  that 
any  laws  that  may  have  been  passed  in  the  province 
attempting  to  mitigate  or  regulate  the  evil  of  slavery 
did  not  authorize  it.  This  Negro  was  financially 
supported  by  others,  and  he  was  awarded  a  favorable 
decision.  The  judgment,  however,  failed  to  have  any 
general  effect,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution 
the  Congress  of  Massachusetts  seemed  to  recognize 
the  system  of  slavery  by  the  decision  that  no  slave 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  EPOCH  33 

could  be  enlisted  in  the  army.  In  1777,  however,  some 
slaves  brought  from  Jamaica  were  ordered  to  be  set 
at  liberty,  and  it  was  finally  decided  in  1783  that  the 
declaration  in  the  Massachusetts  Bill  of  Rights  to 
the  effect  that  "all  men  are  born  free  and  equal"  pro 
hibited  slavery.  In  this  year  New  Hampshire  in 
corporated  in  her  constitution  an  article  definitely 
prohibiting  slavery.  Far  different  was  the  course  of 
events  in  the  Southern  States.  North  Carolina  in 
1777  enacted  that  instead  of  the  consent  of  the 
governor  and  council  that  of  the  county  court  was 
necessary  for  the  freedom  of  a  slave;  and  neither 
South  Carolina  nor  Georgia  took  any  steps  to  en 
courage  emancipation.  It  will  be  seen,  however, 
from  this  rapid  review  that  some  progress  had  been 
made.  By  the  time  the  convention  for  the  framing 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  met  in  Phila 
delphia  in  1787,  at  least  two  of  the  original  thirteen 
states  (Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire)  had 
positively  prohibited  slavery,  and  in  three  others 
(Pennsylvania,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island)  grad 
ual  abolition  was  in  progress. 

18.  The  Northwest  Territory.— The  Northwest 
Territory  was  the  region  west  of  Pennsylvania,  east 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  north  of  the  Ohio  River,  and 
south  of  Canada,  finally  organized  in  1787  as  a  terri 
tory  of  the  United  States.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 


34     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

Revolutionary  War  this  region  was  claimed  by  Vir 
ginia,  New  York,  Connecticut,  and  Massachusetts. 
This  territory  afforded  to  these  states  a  source  of 
revenue  not  possessed  by  the  others  for  the  payment 
of  debts  incurred  in  the  war.  Maryland  and  other 
seaboard  states  insisted  that  in  order  to  equalize 
matters  these  claimants  should  cede  their  rights  to 
the  general  government.  The  formal  cessions  were 
made  and  accepted  in  the  years  1782-6.  In  April, 
1784,  after  Virginia  had  made  her  cession,  the  most 
important,  Congress  adopted  a  temporary  form  of 
government  drawn  up  by  Thomas  Jefferson  for  the 
territory  south  as  well  as  north  of  the  Ohio  River. 
Jefferson's  most  significant  provision,  however,  was 
rejected.  This  declared  that  "  after  the  year  1800 
there  shall  be  neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude 
in  any  of  the  said  states  other  than  in  the  punishment 
of  crimes  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  con 
victed."  In  1787  the  last  Continental  Congress,  how 
ever,  passed  "An  Ordinance  for  the  Government  of 
the  Territory  of  the  United  States,  Northwest  of  the 
Ohio,"  the  Southern  states  not  having  ceded  the  area 
south  of  the  river.  It  was  declared  that  "There 
shall  be  neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  in 
the  said  territory,  otherwise  than  in  punishment  of 
crimes,  whereof  the  parties  shall  be  duly  convicted." 
To  this  was  added  the  stipulation  (soon  afterwards 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  EPOCH  35 

embodied  in  the  federal  Constitution)  for  the  delivery 
of  fugitives  from  labor  or  service.  In  this  shape  the 
ordinance  was  adopted,  even  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia  concurring.  Thus  was  paved  the  way  for  the 
first  fugitive  slave  law. 

19.  The  Constitution  and  Slavery. — Slavery  was 
the  cause  of  two  of  the  three  great  compromises  that 
characterized  the  making  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  (the  third,  which  was  the  first  made, 
being  the  concession  to  the  smaller  states  of  equal 
representation  in  the  Senate).  These  are  the  first  of 
a  long  list  of  compromises  in  the  history  of  the 
subject.  South  Carolina,  with  able  representatives, 
largely  dominated  the  thought  of  the  convention, 
threatening  not  to  accept  the  Constitution  if  there 
was  not  some  compliance  with  her  demands.  An  im 
portant  question  was  that  of  representation,  the 
Southern  states  advocating  representation  according 
to  numbers,  slave  and  free,  while  the  Northern  states 
were  in  favor  of  the  representation  of  free  persons 
only.  It  was  finally  agreed  to  reckon  three-fifths  of 
the  slaves  in  estimating  taxes  and  to  make  taxation 
the  basis  of  representation.  With  reference  to  the 
slave-trade  a  bargain  was  made  between  the  com 
mercial  interests  of  the  North  and  the  slaveholding 
interests  of  the  South,  the  granting  to  Congress  of 
unrestricted  power  to  enact  navigation  laws  being 


36     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

conceded  in  exchange  for  twenty  years'  continuance 
of  the  African  slave-trade.  The  main  agreements  on 
the  subject  of  slavery  were  thus  finally  expressed  in 
the  Constitution:  " Representatives  and  direct  taxes 
shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  states  which 
may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to  their 
respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by 
adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons,  including 
those  bound  to  servitude  for  a  term  of  years,  and  ex 
cluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all  other 
persons"  (Art.  I,  Sec.  2);  "The  migration  or  im 
portation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  states  now 
existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  pro 
hibited  by  the  congress  prior  to  the  year  1808;  but  a 
tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars 
on  each  person  "  (Art.  I,  Sec.  9);  "No  person  held  to 
service  or  labor  in  one  state,  under  the  laws  thereof, 
escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any 
law  or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such 
service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of 
the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due  " 
(Art.  IV,  Sec.  2).  It  will  be  observed  that  the  word 
slaves  occurs  in  no  one  of  these  articles.  The  framers 
of  the  Constitution  did  not  wish  to  have  their  docu 
ment  recognize  property  in  human  beings. 

20.  Inventions. — Of  incalculable  significance  in  the 
history  of  the  Negro  in  America  was  the  series  of 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  EPOCH  37 

inventions  of  the  years  1767-93.  In  1768  Richard 
Arkwright,  after  a  year  of  experimenting,  set  up  in 
Preston  in  England  his  first  spinning-frame,  which 
consisted  mainly  of  two  pairs  of  revolving  rollers. 
About  1764  James  Hargreaves  of  England  invented 
the  spinning-jenny.  In  1779  the  principles  of  these 
two  inventions  were  utilized  by  Samuel  Crompton  in 
his  spinning-mule,  which  had  as  its  distinctive  feature 
a  spindle-carriage  which,  receding  so  as  to  ease  the 
strain  of  winding  on  the  spindles,  produced  yarn 
suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  fine  muslins.  In  this 
same  period  the  revolutionary  discovery  of  the  power 
of  steam  by  James  Watt  of  Glasgow  was  applied  to 
cotton  manufacture,  and  improvements  were  made  in 
printing  and  bleaching.  There  yet  remained  one  final 
invention  of  importance  for  the  cultivation  and  manu 
facture  of  cotton  on  a  large  scale.  Eli  Whitney,  a 
graduate  of  Yale,  went  to  Georgia  and  was  employed 
by  the  widow  of  General  Greene  on  her  plantation. 
Seeing  the  need  of  some  machine  for  the  more  rapid 
separating  of  cotton-seed  from  the  fiber,  he  labored 
until  in  1793  he  succeeded  in  making  his  cotton  gin 
of  practical  value.  The  tradition  is  persistent,  how 
ever,  that  the  real  credit  for  the  invention  belongs  to  a 
Negro  on  the  plantation.  The  cotton-gin  created 
great  excitement  throughout  the  South  and  began  to 
be  utilized  everywhere.  The  cultivation  and  export- 


38     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

ing  of  the  staple  grew  by  leaps  and  bounds.  Thus  at 
the  very  time  that  the  Northern  states  were  abolishing 
slavery,  an  industry  that  had  slumbered  became  su 
preme,  and  the  fate  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Negro 
slaves  was  sealed. 

21.  Influence  of  Toussaint  L'Ouverture. — About 
this  time  there  came  into  the  notice  of  the  world  a 
remarkable  man  whose  influence  on  the  history  of 
slavery  in  the  United  States  has  yet  to  be  fully  esti 
mated.  The  most  important  colonial  possession  of 
France  was  Santo  Domingo,  which  then  included 
also  the  present  Hayti.  Hither  slaves  had  been 
brought  in  such  numbers  that  in  1791  there  were  on 
the  island  sixteen  Negroes  to  one  white  man.  The 
French  slave  code  was  not  harsh;  but  its  provisions 
were  generally  disregarded  by  the  planters  on  the 
island.  The  result  of  this  and  of  a  vacillating  attitude 
on  the  part  of  the  Assembly  in  Paris  was  that  in  1794 
Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  the  leader  of  Negro  insur 
gents,  became  supreme  on  the  island  as  commander- 
in-chief.  British  soldiers  invited  by  the  planters  were 
forced  to  leave  in  1798.  Toussaint  as  president 
brought  the  island  to  a  high  degree  of  prosperity;  but 
in  1802  he  was  treacherously  seized  by  the  emissaries 
of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  taken  to  France,  and  confined 
in  a  dungeon.  This  was  the  man  who  caused  France 
to  lose  her  most  important  colonial  possession,  and 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  EPOCH  39 

the  Negro  race  to  obtain  its  first  independent  settle 
ment  outside  of  the  continent  of  Africa.  In  America 
the  influence  of  this  chieftain  strengthened  the  anti- 
slavery  movement,  became  one  of  the  reasons  for  the 
cheap  selling  of  Louisiana,  and  rendered  more  certain 
the  prohibition  of  the  slave-trade  by  the  United 
States  in  1807.*  A  wave  of  fear  swept  over  the  South, 
and  the  voice  of  morality  began  to  speak  more  loudly 
than  that  of  trade  to  the  New  England  conscience. 
The  effect  on  legislation  was  immediate,  South  Caro 
lina,  North  Carolina,  and  Georgia  passing  more  re 
pressive  measures,  directed  especially  against  im 
portations  of  West  Indian  Negroes. 

22.  From  1789  to  1817.  New  States  and  Terri 
tories. — In  Washington's  administration  considerable 
discussion  grew  out  of  different  memorials  presented 
to  Congress  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade. 
These  generally  emanated  from  the  Quakers  in  Penn 
sylvania,  who  were  untiring  in  their  efforts  for  the 
slave.  A  fugitive  slave  law  was  passed  in  1793.  It 
practically  placed  the  burden  of  proof  on  the  fugitive; 
accordingly  many  free  Negroes  were  remanded  into 
slavery.  As  many  of  the  Northern  states  passed  acts 
forbidding  their  magistrates  to  take  any  part  in  put 
ting  this  law  into  execution,  it  became  substantially  a 
dead  letter;  nevertheless  its  moral  force  was  to 
*  See  DuBois,  70. 


! 


40     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

strengthen  the  South.  A  measure  of  1794  in  Congress 
was  the  first  national  act  against  the  slave-trade.  It 
was  designed  to  prevent  the  carrying  on  of  the  traffic 
from  the  United  States  to  any  foreign  place  or  country, 
or  the  fitting  out  of  slavers  in  the  United  States  for 
any  such  place  or  country.  Vermont  was  admitted 
to  the  Union  in  1791.  Her  constitution,  originally 
adopted  in  1777,  declared  very  positively  against 
slavery;  so  that  to  this  state  really  belongs  the  honor 
of  being  the  first  to  prohibit  and  abolish  slavery. 
Kentucky  was  formally  admitted  in  1792,  the  article 
on  slavery  in  her  constitution  encouraging  the  system 
and  discouraging  emancipation.  Tennessee  entered 
as  a  slave  state  in  1796.  In  1797  the  question  of 
slavery  in  the  Mississippi  Territory  was  raised,  and 
the  only  restraint  placed  here  was  that  Negroes  should 
not  be  brought  in  from  outside  of  the  United  States. 
In  1798  the  Constitution  of  Georgia  was  revised.  On 
the  matter  of  slavery  it  followed  the  Kentucky  article 
making  emancipation  difficult.  In  1799,  after  many 
efforts  and  much  debating,  New  York  at  last  declared 
for  gradual  abolition.  As  frequent  mention  has  been 
made  of  this  matter  of  gradual  abolition,  and  as 
New  York's  solution  of  the  problem  was  fairly  typical, 
it  might  be  well  to  review  the  chief  provisions  in  her 
act.  Those  who  were  slaves  were  to  continue  such 
for  life.  Their  children  born  after  the  following 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY  EPOCH  41 

July  4th  were  to  be  free,  but  were  to  remain  as  ap 
prentices  with  the  owner  of  the  mother,  the  men 
until  they  were  twenty-eight  years  old,  the  women 
until  they  were  twenty-five.  The  exportation  of 
slaves  was  forbidden,  and  the  slave  on  whom  such  an 
attempt  was  made  was  to  be  set  free  at  once.  Persons 
coming  into  the  state  might  bring  with  them  slaves 
whom  they  had  owned  for  a  year  previously;  but 
slaves  so  brought  in  could  not  be  sold.  New  Jersey 
declared  for  gradual  abolition  in  1804.  It  was  not 
until  about  1830,  however,  that  slavery  finally  ceased 
in  New  York,  and  still  later  than  this  in  New  Jersey. 
Attempts  were  made  about  1800  for  gradual  abolition 
in  Kentucky  and  Maryland;  but  these  failed,  as  did 
also  an  attempt  for  more  speedy  emancipation  in 
Pennsylvania.  In  1802  Georgia  ceded  to  the  United 
States  the  territory  now  comprising  Alabama  and 
Mississippi,  exacting  for  this,  however,  an  article 
favorable  to  slavery.  When  in  1803  Ohio  was  carved 
out  of  the  Northwest  Territory  as  a  free  state,  an  at 
tempt  was  made  to  claim  the  rest  of  the  territory  for 
slavery;  but  this  did  not  succeed.  In  the  congres 
sional  session  of  1804-5  tne  matter  of  slavery  in  the 
newly  acquired  territory  of  Louisiana  was  brought 
up,  and  slaves  were  allowed  to  be  imported  from 
other  states  if  they  had  come  to  the  United  States  not 
later  than  1798,  the  intention  of  this  last  clause  being 


42      A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

to  guard  against  a  recent  act  of  South  Carolina  reviv 
ing  the  slave-trade.  In  this  latter  state  importation, 
prohibited  in  1787,  was  again  legalized  in  1803;  and 
in  the  four  years  immediately  following  39,075  Negroes 
were  brought  to  Charleston.*  As  the  constitutional 
twenty-year  period  of  the  prohibition  of  measures 
against  the  slave-trade  was  expiring,  there  were  ani 
mated  debates  in  Congress  on  the  subject.  At 
length  it  was  enacted  that  the  importation  of  slaves 
should  be  prohibited  after  December  31,  1807.  As 
we  shall  see,  although  this  act  went  into  effect,  the 
slave-trade  was  by  no  means  suppressed.  Smuggling 
was  continued,  sometimes  on  a  large  scale.  Louisiana 
was  admitted  as  a  slave  state  in  1812,  and  Indiana 
came  into  the  Union  in  1816.  The  subject  of  slavery 
was  generally  quiescent  in  the  period  of  the  War  of 
1812.  This  war  was  opposed  by  the  South;  just  why 
may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  Admiral  Cochrane  of 
the  British  navy  issued  an  address  designed  especially 
to  attract  slaves  to  his  standard.  The  war,  moreover, 
was  damaging  to  the  exportation  of  cotton.  Missis 
sippi  was  admitted  to  the  Union  December  10,  1817, 
slavery  being  recognized  in  a  clause  not  granting  to 
slaves  the  privilege  of  trial  by  jury.  Illinois  entered 
in  1818,  and  Alabama  in  1819.  It  will  be  observed 
that  up  to  this  time  the  balance  had  been  fairly  well 

*  The  figure  is  from  DuBois,  90. 


THE  REVOLUTIONARY   EPOCH  43 

preserved  between  the  slave  and  the  free  states.  Of 
the  former  there  were  in  the  original  thirteen  seven, 
and  of  the  latter  six.  Vermont  was  an  addition  to  the 
free  states;  but  the  admission  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  strengthened  the  South.  Then  from  1803  to 
1819  Ohio  and  Louisiana,  Indiana  and  Mississippi, 
and  Illinois  and  Alabama  marked  an  alternation  of 
free  and  slave  states.  The  Southern  states  soon  real 
ized  that  they  could  not  long  maintain  this  balance 
because  of  the  lack  of  territory  and  also  by  reason  of 
the  fact  that  the  business  of  the  North  tended  more 
than  that  of  the  South  to  the  rapid  growth  of  popula 
tion.  In  the  meantime  came  the  application  of  Mis 
souri  for  entrance;  but  with  this  event  the  history  of 
slavery  started  on  a  new  era,  one  destined  not  to  be 
closed  until  the  Negro  was  free. 

23.  The  Decline  of  Great  Convictions. — We  have 
seen  that  at  the  beginning  of  this  period  liberal  ideas 
were  dominant  in  both  England  and  America.  One 
of  the  sad  features  of  the  close  of  the  era  is  the  fading 
of  the  ideals  that  had  inspired  the  patriots  of  the 
Revolution.  Generally  the  energies  of  the  young  na 
tion  were  being  directed  to  the  material  development 
of  the  country,  and  more  commercial  interests  entered 
into  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain  than  into  the 
first.  In  the  North  there  was  a  lull  in  the  agitation, 
the  meetings  of  anti-slavery  organizations  becoming 


44     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

intermittent.    In  the  South  the  men  of  patriotism  and 
responsibility  found   themselves  in   the  grasp  of  a 
mighty  evil  which  it  was  almost  as  difficult  to  shake 
off  as  to  endure.     Generally  the  demands  of  interest 
were  taking  precedence  over  those  of  humanity;  and 
Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  South  Carolina  made 
more  stringent  laws  against  emancipation.    Increasing 
sensitiveness  on  the  subject  of  slavery  was  felt,  and 
Thomas  Jefferson,  apostle  of  democracy,  dared  not 
risk  his  popularity  by  utterances  similar  to  those  of 
his  earlier  life.    Considerable  advance  had  been  made, 
however.     Four  states  (Massachusetts,  New  Hamp 
shire,  Vermont,  and  Ohio)  had  definitely  prohibited 
slavery,  and  generally  throughout  the  North  abolition 
was  in  progress. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   INSTITUTION   OF   SLAVERY 

24.  General  View  of  the  System. — It  is  now  time 
to  look  somewhat  more  intimately  at  the  actual  work 
ing  of  the  system  which  has  really  formed  the  subject 
of  the  last  two  chapters.  "  In  colonies  like  those  in  the 
West  Indies  and  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  the 
rapid  importation  into  America  of  a  multitude  of 
savages  gave  rise  to  a  system  of  slavery  far  different 
from  that  which  the  late  Civil  War  abolished.  The 
strikingly  harsh  and  even  inhuman  slave  codes  in 
those  colonies  show  this.  Crucifixion,  burning,  and 
starvation  were  legal  modes  of  punishment.  The  rough 
and  brutal  character  of  the  time  and  place  was  largely 
responsible  for  this;  but  a  more  decisive  reason  lay  in 
the  fierce  and  turbulent  character  of  the  imported 
Negroes.  ...  On  the  other  hand,  in  New  England 
and  New  York  the  Negroes  were  merely  house  serv 
ants  or  farm  hands,  and  were  treated  neither  better 
nor  worse  than  servants  in  general  in  those  days.  Be 
tween  these  two  extremes,  the  system  of  slavery  varied 
from  a  mild  serfdom  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey 

45 


SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 


to   an   aristocratic   caste   system  in   Maryland   and 
Virginia."  * 

*  (25^  Proctuffig^laves. — As  to  the  actual  procuring 
ofme  slaves,  the  process  was  by  no  means  as  easy  as 
is  sometimes  supposed.  The  captain  of  a  vessel  had 
to  resort  to  various  expedients  in  order  to  get  his 
cargo.  His  commonest  method  was  to  bring  with  him 
a  variety  of  gay  cloth,  cheap  ornaments,  and  whiskey, 
which  he  would  give  in  exchange  for  slaves  brought  to 
him]  His  task  was  most  simple  when  a  chieftain  of 
one  tribe  brought  to  him  several  hundred  prisoners 
of  war.  Most  often,  however,  the  work  was  more 
toilsome,  and  kidnapping  a  favorite  method,  though, 
as  is  commonly  thought,  individuals  were  frequently 
enticed  on  vessels.  The  work  was  always  dangerous, 
for  the  natives  along  the  slave  coast  were  suspicious. 
After  they  had  seen  some  of  their  fellows  taken  away, 
they  learned  not  to  go  unarmed  while  a  slave-vessel 
was  on  the  coast,  and  very  often  there  were  hand-to- 
hand  encounters.  I  "At  first  the  slave  vessels  only 
visited  theTfuinea  coast,  and  bargained  with  the 
negroes  of  the  villages  there  for  what  quantity  of  wax, 
or  gold,  or  negroes  they  had  to  give.  But  this  was  a 
clumsy  way  of  conducting  business.  The  ships  had 
to  sail  along  a  large  tract  of  coast,  picking  up  a  few 
negroes  at  one  place,  and  a  little  ivory  or  gold  at  an- 
*  DuBois,  5,  6. 


THE  INSTITUTION  OF  SLAVERY  47 

other;  sometimes  even  the  natives  of  a  village  might 
have  no  elephants'  teeth  and  no  negroes  to  give;  and 
even  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  it  took 
a  considerable  time  to  procure  a  decent  cargo j  No 
coast  is  so  pestilential  as  that  of  Africa,  ancl  hence  the 
service  was  very  repulsive  and  very  dangerous.  As 
an  improvement  on  this  method  of  trading,  the  plan 
was  adopted  very  early  of  planting  small  settlements 
of  Europeans  at  intervals  along  the  slave-coast,  whose 
business  it  should  be  to  negotiate  with  the  negroes, 
stimulate  them  to  activity  in  the  slave-hunting  ex 
peditions,  purchase  the  slaves  brought  in,  and  ware 
house  them  until  the  arrival  of  the  ships.  These  set 
tlements  were  called  slave  factories.  Factories  of  this 
kind  were  planted  all  along  the  western  coast  from 
Cape  Verde  to  the  equator,  by  English,  French, 
Dutch,  and  Portuguese  traders."  * 

26.  The  Middle  Passage. — Once  on  board  the  slaves 
were  put  in  chains  two  by  two.  When  the  ship  was 
ready  to  start,  the  hold  of  the  vessel,  whose  ceiling 
might  be  four  feet  from  the  floor,  would  be  crowded 
with  moody  and  unhappy  wretches  who  most  com 
monly  were  made  to  crouch  so  that  their  knees  touched 
their  chins.  There  was  one  entrance  to  the  hold,  and 
there  were  small  gratings  on  the  sides.  The  clothing 
of  a  slave,  if  there  was  any  at  all,  consisted  of  a  rag 

*  Blake,  QQ. 


48     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

about  the  loins.  The  food  consisted  of  rice,  yams, 
beans,  or  soup,  and  sometimes  bread  and  meat;  but 
the  cooking  was  not  good,  nor  was  any  care  taken  to 
see  that  all  the  slaves  were  fed.  The  supply  of  water 
was  always  limited,  a  pint  a  day  being  a  generous 
allowance.  For  exercise  the  slaves  were  made  to 
dance  by  the  lash,  and  in  order  that  they  might  be 
less  gloomy  they  were  also  frequently  forced  to  sing. 
The  rule  was  to  bring  them  on  deck  for  an  airing  twice 
a  day,  about  eight  o'clock  ia-4^-irtcirriirig  and  four 
in  the  afternoon. 

27.  Effects  of  Treatment  on  Slaves.— On  board  the 
vessel  not  all  the  slaves  were  quiet  by  any  means. 
Many  instances  of  stubborn  resistance  are  on  record. 
Sustenance  was  frequently  refused  in  order  that  death 
might  be  hastened.  Sleeping  conditions  were  hor 
rible.  Throughout  the  night  the  hold  resounded  with 
the  moans  of  those  who  awoke  from  dreams  of  home  to 
find  themselves  in  bonds.  The  women  frequently  be 
came  hysterical,  and  both  men  and  women  sometimes 
became  insane.  Fearful  and  contagious  diseases,  some 
times  broke  out.  Small-pox  was  one  of  these.  Much 
more  common  was  ophthalmia,  a  frightful  inflamma 
tion  of  the  eyes.  A  blind  (hence  worthless)  slave  was 
generally  thrown  to  the  sharks.  Many  of  the  victims 
would  embrace  any  opportunity  that  might  be  pre 
sented  to  leap  overboard  in  the  hope  (that  universally 


THE  INSTITUTION  OF  SLAVERY  49 

prevailed  among  them)  of  being  taken  back  to  Africa. 
The  sanitary  conditions  of  the  vessel  can  better  be 
imagined    than   described.     The   slaves,    bound   for 
hours,  together,  wallowed  in  inconceivable  filth.    The 
putrid  atmosphere,  sudden  transitions  from  heat  to 
cold,  and  melancholy  increased  the  mortality  among 
a  people  naturally  light-hearted;  and  frequently  when 
morning  came  a  dead  and  a  living  slave  were  found 
shackled   together.     A   captain   always   counted   on 
losing  on  the  voyage  one-fourth  of  his  cargo  of  slaves. 
28.  Effects  on  Seamen.— The  physical  effects  of  the 
system  on  the  common  seamen  were  only  less  bad 
than  those  on  the  slaves.     These  men  were  often 
naturally  brutal,  but  not  always.    Sometimes  they  ac 
cepted  work  on  a  slaver  as  a  last  resort  before  going 
to  jail.    One  who  remembers  the  condition  of  English 
prisons  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
will  not  wonder  that  the  men  accepted  any  possible 
alternative.     The  life  of  the  seamen  brought  them 
into  close  contact  with  the  slaves,  whose  contagious 
diseases  they  readily  contracted.    They  received  harsh 
treatment  from  the  captain  of  the  vessel,  who  was 
invariably  a  man  of  blunted  sympathies.     That  the 
slave-trade  was  not  relished  by  the  men  who  had  to 
do  the  dirty  work  may  be  seen  from  the  difficulty  of 
getting  men  for  the  service  and  from  the  large  number 
of  desertions. 


50     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

29.  Price  of  Slaves. — When  a  cargo  of  slaves  was 
once  in  port,  an  auction  would  very  soon  be  announced. 
In  the  earlier  years  the  price  of  a  slave  was  far  less 
than  what  it  became  just  before  the  Civil  War;  but 
consideration  must  be  given  to  the  greater  purchasing 
power  of  money  than  in  the  later  period.    About  the 
year  1700  able-bodied  adult  Negroes  were  valued  at 
from  $125  to  $200,  and  children  at  $50  or  $60.    There 
was  little  difference  in  the  value  of  men  and  women, 
for  while  a  man  might  do  more  work,  a  woman  might 
beget  children  for  her  master^    A  man  worth  $200 
would  in  one  or  two  seasons  by  his  labor  bring  back 
to  his  owner  the  amount  of  money  expended  for  him. 

1  After  the  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  the  price  of 
slaves  rose  so  that  a  man  who  in  1792  brought  $300 
sold  in  1800  for  $450.  \The  price  continued  to  rise 
until  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  that  for 
an  able-bodied  man  or  a  beautiful  woman  was  very 
frequently  $1,200,  and,  under  exceptional  circum 
stances,  even  $1,800.  |A  slave  was  regarded  as  per 
sonal  property,  and  to  steal  one  was  a  capital 
offense. 

30.  Work  of  Slaves. — Slaves  were  of  most  value 
when  large  numbers  of  them  worked  together.     In 
the  South  the  tendency  was  to  develop  large  planta 
tions.     One  thousand  was  the  number  of  slaves  on 
the  ordinary  large  plantation,  though  once  in  a  while 


THE  INSTITUTION  OF  SLAVERY  51 

the  figure  became  as  high  as  four  or  even  five  thousand. 
In  Virginia  and  Kentucky  tobacco  was  raised.  In 
South  Carolina  the  cultivation  of  rice  began  about 
1693.  By  1740  the  yield  was  worth  $1,000,000  a  year. 
For  a  long  time  indigo  was  next  to  this  staple  in  im 
portance.  Some  silk,  flax,  hemp,  oranges,  corn,  and 
sugar  were  also  raised;  but,  as  we  have  seen,  after  the 
invention  of  the  cotton-gin  cotton  became  supreme. 
The  law  with  reference  to  slaves  on  plantations  im 
posed  a  penalty  of  £5  if  they  were  made  to  work  on 
Sunday  or  more  than  fifteen  hours  a  day  in  summer 
or  fourteen  in  winter.  This  was  for  the  colonial  period ; 
the  same  general  limits  obtained  in  later  years.  Such 
skilled  labor  as  the  South  possessed  before  the  Civil 
War  was  mainly  in  the  hands  of  slaves,  who  might  be 
blacksmiths,  harness-makers,  carpenters,  or  similar 
artisans.  Generally,  however,  work  in  the  trades 
was  such  as  was  incident  to  plantation  life.  Almost 
nothing  in  the  way  of  manufactures  was  done  in 
the  South;  and  it  was  because  goods  were  imported 
from  England  and  the  North  that  Charleston  was 
for  so  long  a  time  a  city  of  commanding  impor 
tance. 

31.  Plantation  Life.— |The  plantation  hand  lived  in 
the  "quarters,"  a  collection  of  rude,  dilapidated 
cabins.  His  own  room,  which  he  shared  with  others, 
contained  an  apology  for  a  bed,  a  chair  or  two,  a 


52      A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

frying-pan,  a  kettle,  and  a  pot-rack.  The  walls  were 
adorned  with  one  or  two  gaudy  pictures.  No  wardrobe 
was  necessary  as  there  was  nothing  to  put  in  one.  An 
average  allowance  of  food  for  a  plantation  hand  was 
a  peck  and  a  half  of  meal  and  three  pounds  of  bacon  a 
week.  In  Louisiana  the  law  required  a  planter  to  give 
a  slave  200  pounds  of  pork  a  year.  Generally  the 
slave  had  also  some  potatoes  and  green  vegetables./ 
The  following  picture  of  life  on  a  Virginia  plantation 
may  be  taken  as  fairly  representative  of  the  system 
in  its  milder  aspects :  VAfter  breakfast  has  been  eaten 
in  the  cabins,  at  sunrise  or  a  little  before  in  winter, 
and  perhaps  a  little  later  in  summer,  they  [the  slaves] 
go  to  the  field.  At  noon  dinner  is  brought  to  them, 
and,  unless  the  work  presses,  they  are  allowed  two 
hours'  rest.  Very  punctually  at  sunset  they  stop  work 
and  are  at  liberty,  except  that  a  squad  is  detached  once 
a  week  for  shelling  corn,  to  go  to  the  mill  for  the  next 
week's  drawing  of  meal.  Thus  they  work  in  the  field 
about  eleven  hours  a  day  on  an  average/  Returning  to 
the  cabins,  wood  'ought  to  have  been  Parted  for  them; 
but  if  it  has  not  been,  they  then  go  to  the  woods  and 
'tote'  it  home  for  themselves.  They  then  make  a 
fire  .  .  .  and  cook  their  own  supper,  which  will  be  a 
bit  of  bacon  fried,  often  with  eggs,  cornbread  baked 
in  the  spider  after  the  bacon,  to  absorb  the  fat,  and 
perhaps  some  sweet  potatoes  roasted  in  the  ashes. 


THE  INSTITUTION  OF  SLAVERY  53 

Immediately  after  supper  they  go  to  sleep,  often  lying 
on  the  floor  or  a  bench  in  preference  to  a  bed.  About 
two  o'clock  they  very  generally  rouse  up  and  cook 
and  eat,  or  eat  cold,  what  they  call  their  'mornin' 
bit7;  and  sleep  again  till  breakfast."  * 

32.  Slave  Breeding. — For  a  long  time  it  cost  as 
much  to  raise  a  slave  as  he  would  ultimately  be 
worth,  and  it  was  commonly  thought  to  be  cheaper 
to  buy  slaves  than  to  rear  them.  The  legal  abolition 
of  the  slave-trade,  however,  coinciding  with  the  heavy 
demands  imposed  by  the  Louisiana  Purchase  and  the 
development  of  the  lower  South,  greatly  changed 
matters.  The  slave  increased  in  value,  and  Virginia 
and  Maryland  became  famous  breeding  places  for  the 
plantations  of  the  far  South,  a  woman  who  was  an 
extraordinary  breeder  being  advertised  as  such.  In 
1832  the  apologist  for  slavery  wrote:  "Virginia  is,  in 
fact,  a  negro  raising  state  for  other  states;  she  pro 
duces  enough  for  her  own  supply,  and  six  thousand 
for  sale."  f  "For  the  ten  years  preceding  1860  the 
average  annual  importation  of  slaves  into  the  seven 
Southern  states  from  the  slave-breeding  states  was 
little  less  than  twenty-five  thousand."  %  On  remote 
plantations  the  operation  of  the  system  was  most 

*  Olmstead,  Journey  in  the  Seaboard  Slave  States,  109. 
t  Dew,  in  the  Pro-Slavery  Argument,  359. 
t  Olmstead,  The  Cotton  Kingdom,  I,  58. 


54     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

gross;  and  a  woman  separated  from  her  husband  was 
forced  to  accept  a  new  mate. 

33.  Religion. — Of  the  slaves  who  came  to  America 
a  very  few  of  the  first  were  Mohammedans  and 
could  even  read  the  Koran.  Most  of  them,  how 
ever,  were  densely  ignorant  and  very  superstitious. 
They  remained  illiterate  in  this  country  as,  ex 
cept  in  some  places  in  the  North,  it  was  a  crime 
to  teach  a  slave  to  read.  On  the  matter  of 
religion  for  the  Negro,  however,  there  seems  in 
the  later  years  to  have  been  sufficient  concern. 
Indeed  it  was  in  the  thought  that  in  America 
the  slave  was  brought  into  the  light  of  Christi 
anity  that  benevolent  people  solaced  themselves 
for  the  whole  system  of  slavery.  Generally  in 
cities  slaves  were  expected  to  go  to  church.  They 
occupied  a  corner  or  a  gallery.  On  plantations  it 
was  very  common  for  the  slaves  to  have  a  meeting  on 
Sunday;  and  it  was  at  this  that  the  "exhorter"  of  the 
plantation  fulfilled  his  wonted  function.  The  law 
required  that  at  least  one  white  person  should  be 
present  at  any  such  meetings  of  slaves.  In  actual 
practice  an  overseer  simply  passed  by  and  looked  in 
for  a  moment  to  see  what  was  being  done.  Much  of 
the  worship  of  the  slaves  was  simply  the  cultivation  of 
emotional  frenzy;  but  here  and  there  light  shone  in 
the  darkness  and  the  true  gospel  was  preached.  The 


THE  INSTITUTION  OF  SLAVERY  55 

Negro  Church  was  born  nearly  a  hundred  years  before 
the  Civil  War. 

34.  Laws  Concerning  Slaves. — When  it  is  remem 
bered  that  each  state  had  its  own  slave  code,  it  will  be 
seen  that  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  make  general  state 
ments  about  the  legal  side  of  slavery.  The  slave  was 
by  law  due  support  in  age  or  sickness,  a  right  to  limited 
religious  instruction,  and  the  privileges  of  marrying, 
having  some  free  time,  and  testifying  in  cases  concern 
ing  other  slaves.  If  he  did  not  get  what  was  due  him  he 
had  no  redress,  for  he  had  no  legal  voice.  His  marriage 
was  not  considered  binding  and  he  was  not  supposed  to 
have  any  morals,  although  many  individuals  were 
models  of  integrity  and  faithfulness.  In  New  England 
slaves  were  regarded  as  possessing  the  same  legal  rights 
as  apprentices,  and  if  masters  abused  their  authority 
they  were  liable  to  indictment.  The  code  of  South  Car 
olina  may  be  taken  as  representative  of  the  harsher  ones. 
According  to  this  a  slave  could  not  leave  a  plantation 
without  a  ticket  of  leave  from  his  master;  if  he  had  no 
passport  he  might  be  given  twenty  lashes,  or  be  "  mod 
erately  punished  "  by  a  man  that  stopped  him,  or  be  re 
garded  as  a  fugitive;  he  could  have  no  firearms  or  other 
weapons  in  his  possession;  nor  (for  fear  of  poisonings) 
was  he  allowed  to  make  any  medicines  without  the 
knowledge  of  his  master  or  mistress.  On  plantations 
no  master  was  to  allow  a  slave  to  plant  for  himself  any 


56      A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

corn,  peas,  or  rice,  or  keep  any  private  stock;  and 
generally  slaves  were  to  wear  clothes  of  the  coarsest 
material  only.  Such  provisions  as  these  last,  how 
ever,  were  commonly  disregarded. 

35.  Punishment. — By  the  South  Carolina  act  of 
1740  a  fine  of  £700  was  imposed  for  the  deliberate 
murder  of  a  slave  by  his  master  or  another  white 
man,  £350  for  killing  him  under  correction  or  in  the 
heat  of  passion,  and  £100  for  mutilation  or  cruel  pun 
ishment.  In  Mississippi  it  was  decided  in  1820  that 
the  wanton  killing  of  a  slave  by  his  master  was  murder. 
In  Georgia,  however,  it  was  declared  thirty  years 
later  that  a  master  had  absolute  power  over  a  slave. 
In  actual  practice,  as  plantations  were  remote  and  as 
a  slave  had  no  legal  voice,  no  penalty  was  anywhere 
attached  to  the  murder  of  a  slave  by  his  master, 
though  of  course  the  owner  could  recover  damages  if 
his  slave  was  killed  by  anybody  else.,  Severe  cruelties 
for  petty  offenses  were  imposed  by  the  South  Carolina 
code  of  1712;  but  these  were  soon  modified,  and  in 
actual  practice  the  punishment  for  stealing  was  gen 
erally  whipping.  In  Charleston  and  elsewhere  just 
before  the  Civil  War  the  common  punishment  of  a 
slave  for  a  minor  offense  was  ten  lashes  on  the  bare 
back.  This  was  administered  by  a  man  who  made  it 
his  business  to  whip  slaves  and  who  rendered  his 
monthly  account  to  his  patrons  at  the  rate  of  ten 


THE  INSTITUTION  OF  SLAVERY 


© 

lashes  for  fifteen  cents.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the 
slaves  regarded  this  man  as  their  inveterate  enemy. 
If  resistance  was  offered,  the  punishment  was  doubled 
or  trebled.  After  these  inflictions  the  flesh  was  com 
monly  left  raw.  "The  ordinary  death  penalty  for  the 
black  man  was  hanging.  Burning  at  the  stake  was  not 
unknown,  but  there  is  one  instance  of  such  an  execu 
tion  in  Massachusetts,  and  there  are  several  in  New 
York,  so  that  it  can  not  be  cited  as  illustrating  any 
peculiarity  of  the  South  Carolina  type  of  slavery." 

36.  Peculiar  Social  Aspects. — In  the  study  of 
slavery,  as  in  the  study  of  any  other  institution,  it  is 
to  be  remembered  that  peculiar  attendant  circum 
stances  were  ever  present  to  modify  large  deductions 
that  might  be  made.  One  thing  that  has  been  touched 
upon  more  than  once  in  the  course  of  these  pages  was 
the  differing  character  of  the  system  of  slavery  in  dif 
ferent  states,  even  in  different  Southern  states.  On 
the  great  plantations  along  the  coast  or  in  the  cotton 
belt  slavery  appeared  in  all  its  grossness  and  hideous- 
ness.  In  Virginia,  however,  there  was  originally  a 
more  patriarchal  form  of  the  system ;  and  the  mistress 
of  the  estate  not  infrequently  became  the  nurse  of  all 
the  slaves  on  the  plantation.  Another  attendant  cir 
cumstance  to  be  reckoned  with  is  the  fact  that  in 
numberless  instances  the  masters  of  plantations  or 

*  Fiske,  II,  330. 


58     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

estates  themselves  became  the  fathers  of  slaves. 
Most  frequently  their  children  fared  just  as  any  other 
slaves;  but  not  always.  Such  incidents  as  these,  how 
ever,  but  emphasize  the  evil  effects  of  slavery  on  both 
the  dominant  and  the  subject  race. 

37.  Argument  for  Slavery. — Deserving  at  least  of 
passing  notice  in  this  review  are  the  arguments  ad 
vanced  by  the  South  in  support  of  slavery.  The  fore 
most  apologist  for  the  system,  a  professor  at  William 
and  Mary  College,  argued  that  slavery  had  made  for 
the  civilization  of  the  world  in  that  it  had  mitigated 
the  evils  of  war,  had  made  labor  profitable,  had 
changed  the  nature  of  savages,  and  elevated  woman. 
The  slave-trade  was  of  course  horrible  and  unjust;  but 
the  great  advantages  of  the  system  more  than  out 
weighed  a  few  attendant  evils.  Emancipation  and 
deportation  were  impossible.  Even  if  practicable, 
they  would  be  inexpedient  measures,  for  they  meant 
the  loss  to  Virginia  of  one-third  of  her  property.  As  for 
morality,  it  was  not  to  be  expected  that  the  Negro 
should  have  the  sensibilities  of  the  white  man.  More 
over,  the  system  had  the  positive  advantage  of  culti 
vating  a  republican  spirit  among  the  white  people.  In 
short,  said  Dew,  the  slaves,  in  both  the  economic  and 
the  moral  point  of  view,  were  "entirely  unfit  for  a 
state  of  freedom  among  the  whites."  These  argu 
ments  the  church,  with  its  usual  conservatism,  sup- 


THE  INSTITUTION  OF  SLAVERY  59 

ported.  It  was  pointed  out  that  the  old  Mosaic  law 
recognized  slavery,  that  in  the  New  Testament  serv 
ants  were  told  to  be  obedient  to  their  masters,  and 
that,  best  of  all,  the  Apostle  Paul  was  on  the  side  of  the 
fugitive  slave  law,  having  advised  the  servant  Onesi- 
mus  to  go  back  to  his  master  Philemon.  Moreover, 
Jesus  Christ  had  on  no  occasion  spoken  against 
slavery.  Just  before  the  war  a  distinguished  minister, 
Palmer  of  New  Orleans,  preached  a  noteworthy  ser 
mon  which  was  printed  and  sent  broadcast  over  the 
country.  He  maintained  in  substance  that  such  an 
overturning  of  the  established  order  of  things  as  the 
opponents  of  slavery  intended  was  not  only  a  violation 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  but  the  very 
endeavor  to  bring  about  a  new  reign  of  anarchy  in 
society.  After  the  lapse  of  years  the  pro-slavery  argu 
ment  is  pitiful  in  its  numerous  fallacies,  and  it  but 
serves  as  an  example  of  the  extremes  to  which  eco 
nomic  interest  will  sometimes  force  men  of  the  highest 
intelligence  and  honor. 

38.  Economy  of  Slavery. — We  have  seen  that  on 
its  own  confession  the  colony  of  Georgia  did  not  begin 
to  grow  until  it  used  slave  labor.  In  course  of  time 
the  very  life  of  the  South  came  to  depend  on  the  cot 
ton  industry.  The  final  economic  effects  of  the 
system  of  slavery  on  this  section,  however,  were 
disastrous.  "It  needed  no  extensive  marshalling  of 


60     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

statistics  to  prove  that  the  welfare  of  the  North  was 
greater  than  that  of  the  South.  Two  simple  facts, 
everywhere  admitted,  were  of  so  far-reaching  moment 
that  they  amounted  to  irrefragable  demonstration. 
The  emigration  from  the  slave  states  was  much  larger 
than  the  movement  in  the  other  direction;  and  the 
South  repelled  the  industrious  emigrants  who  came 
from  Europe,  while  the  North  attracted  them."  * 
The  rich  men  of  the  South,  moreover,  invested  their 
capital  in  land  and  slaves,  so  that  mercantile  interests 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Northerners  and  Englishmen; 
and  in  course  of  time  the  South  became  wholly  de 
pendent  on  places  outside  of  herself  for  manufactured 
goods.  *  This  fact  accounts  for  South  Carolina's  atti 
tude  toward  the  tariff  of  1828  and  her  emphasis  on 
the  principle  of  nullification.  At  a  time  when  on 
account  of  increased  production  cotton  was  falling  in 
value  from  forty  cents  a  pound  to  seven  or  eight 
cents,  this  same  cotton  was  coming  back  from  England 
as  cloth  or  clothing  under  a  very  high  tariff.  It  was 
the  rich  planter  rather  than  the  white  man  of  slender 
means  who  profited  by  slavery,  wealth  being  more 
and  more  concentrated  in  a  few  hands.  Among  those 
white  people  who  did  not  own  slaves,  moreover,  there 
grew  up  a  contempt  for  industrial  effort,  all  manual 
labor  being  associated  in  their  minds  with  slavery. 
*  Rhodes,  I,  355. 


THE  INSTITUTION  OF  SLAVERY  61 

In  1860  41  per  cent,  of  the  white  men  who  had  been 
born  in  South  Carolina  were  living  in  other  states.* 
Some  of  the  men  of  Scotch-Irish  stock  in  the  "  up- 
country"  emigrated  before  the  middle  of  the  century 
on  account  of  antipathy  to  slavery;  still  more  yielded 
to  the  call  of  the  rich  lands  of  the  West :  but  the  great 
majority  of  those  who  moved  were  driven  away  by 
the  competition  of  slave  labor.  More  and  more  the 
South  realized  that  she  was  not  keeping  pace  with 
the  country's  development.  Said  the  Richmond  En 
quirer,  one  of  the  strongest  pro-slavery  organs,  under 
date  December  25,  1852:  "Virginia,  anterior  to  the 
Revolution,  and  up  to  the  adoption  of  the  Federal 
Constitution,  contained  more  wealth  and  a  larger 
population  than  any  other  state  of  this  Confeder 
acy.  .  .  .  Virginia,  from  being  first  in  point  of  wealth 
and  political  power,  has  come  down  to  the  fifth  place 
in  the  former,  and  the  fourth  in  the  latter.  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts,  and  Ohio  stand  above 
her  in  wealth,  and  all  but  Massachusetts  in  popula 
tion  and  political  power."  The  apologist  for  slavery 
might  have  shown  more  than  one  reason  for  this  de 
cline;  but  students  of  political  economy  agreed  upon 
one  main  cause — Slavery.  It  remained  for  a  soil  of 
the  South,  a  representative  of  white  men  ofJfmited 
means,  to  expose  the  system.  The  Impending  Crisis, 

*  Professor  D.  D.  Wallace,  in  the  Columbia  State,  August  15,  1909. 


62      A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

produced  four  years  before  the  Civil  War,  was  sur 
passed  in  sensational  interest  by  no  other  book  of 
the  period  except  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin.  Hinton  Rowan 
Helper,  the  author,  was  from  North  Carolina.  He 
did  not  place  himself  upon  the  broadest  principles 
of  humanity  and  statesmanship;  he  had  little  interest 
in  the  Negro  slave  as  such,  and  the  great  planters  of 
the  South  were  to  him  the  "whelps"  and  "curs"  of 
slavery.  He  spoke  simply  as  the  voice  of  the  non- 
slaveholding  whites  of  the  South.  He  set  forth  such 
unpleasant  truths  as  that  the  personal  and  real  prop 
erty,  including  slaves,  of  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Florida,  and  Texas, 
taken  all  together,  was  less  than  the  real  and  personal 
estate  in  the  single  state  of  New  York;  that  the  hay 
crop  alone  of  the  North  was  worth  more  than  all  the 
cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  hay,  hemp,  and  cane-sugar  of 
the  South;  that  representation  in  Southern  legis 
latures  was  unfair;  that  in  the  national  congress  a 
Southern  planter  was  twice  as  powerful  as  a  Northern 
man;  that  slavery  was  to  blame  for  the  migration  from 
the  South  to  the  West;  and  that  in  short  the  system  of 
slavery  was  harmful  in  its  influence  in  every  way.  All 
of  this  was  decidedly  unpleasant  to  the  ears  of  the 
property  owners  of  the  South;  Helper's  book  was 
proscribed,  and  the  author  himself  found  it  more  ad 
visable  to  live  in  New  York  than  in  North  Carolina. 


THE  INSTITUTION  OF  SLAVERY  63 

The  Impending  Crisis  was  eagerly  read,  however, 
and  it  succeeded  as  a  book  because  it  attempted  to 
attack  with  some  degree  of  honesty  a  great  economic 
problem. 


CHAPTER  V 

SLAVERY  A  NATIONAL  ISSUE 

39.  Character  of  the  Period. — The  period  1820-60 
was  characterized  by  a  career  of  constant  aggression 
on  the  part  of  the  slave  power.    This  aggression  was 
marked  by  five  great  steps:  (i)  the  Missouri  Com 
promise  (1820),  the  annexation  of  Texas  (1845),  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law  (1850),  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill 
(1854),  and  the  Dred  Scott  Decision  (1857).     In  addi 
tion  to  these  measures  in  which  it  succeeded,  the 
South  also  attempted  to  acquire  Cuba  and  did  actu 
ally  revive  the  slave- trade,  i  The  mere  enumeration  of 
these  measures  but  emphasizes  the  fact  that  slavery 
is  the  greatest  subject  not  only  in  the  history  of  the 
Negro  race  in  America,  but  even  in  that  of  the  Amer 
ican  nation  itself.  1 

40.  Missouri  Compromise. — When  in  1818  Missouri 
applied  for  entrance  into  the  Union  as  a  slave  state,  a 
great  amount  of  debating  resulted,  lasting  two  years. 
In  the  meantime  Alabama  (in  1819)  and  Maine  (in 
1819)  also  applied  for  admission.    Alabama  was  ad 
mitted  without  much  discussion,  as  she  made  equal 


SLAVERY  A   NATIONAL  ISSUE  65 

the  number  of  slave  and  free  states.  Maine,  however, 
brought  forth  more  talk.  The  Southern  men  would 
have  been  perfectly  willing  to  receive  this  as  a  free 
state  if  Missouri  had  been  admitted  as  a  slave  state; 
but  the  North  felt  that  this  would  have  conceded  al 
together  too  much,  as  Missouri  from  the  first  gave 
promise  of  being  unusually  important.  At  length, 
largely  through  the  influence  of  Henry  Clay,  there 
was  adopted  a  compromise  whose  main  provisions 
were  as  follows:  (i)  Maine  was  to  be  admitted  as  a 
free  state;  (2)  in  Missouri  there  was  to  be  no  pro 
hibition  of  slavery;  but  (3)  slavery  was  to  be  pro 
hibited  in  other  states  that  might  be  formed  out  of 
the  Louisiana  Purchase  north  of  the  line  of  36°  30'. 
While  the  South  really  accomplished  more  than  the 
North  by  the  Missouri  Compromise,  the  measure 
served  to  allay  the  strife  for  some  years.  It  is  de 
batable  now,  however,  if  it  was  a  piece  of  wise  states 
manship,  and  if  it  might  not  have  been  better  to 
fight  the  battle  out  then  once  for  all  rather  than  post 
pone  the  contest  for  forty  years.  Public  opinion, 
however,  was  not  yet  ripe  on  the  subject  of  slavery. 

41.  Mason  and  Dixon's  line. — This  phrase  was 
first  used  during  the  debates  on  the  Missouri  Com 
promise  to  indicate  the  dividing  line  between  the  slave 
and  the  free  states.  The  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line 
was  really  only  the  boundary  between  Pennsylvania 


66      A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

and  Maryland  along  the  parallel  of  39°  43'  26.3",  the 
line  of  which  was  run  in  1763-7  by  two  English  sur 
veyors,  Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon,  to  settle 
a  dispute  between  the  Penn  and  Baltimore  families. 
The  real  dividing  line  between  the  slave  and  the  free 
states  followed  not  only  the  southern  Pennsylvania 
boundary,  but  also  the  Ohio  River  to  the  Mississippi, 
and  then,  with  the  exception  of  the  state  of  Missouri, 
the  parallel  of  36°  30'  established  by  the  Compromise. 
Even  to-day,  however,  the  phrase  Mason  and  Dixon 's 
Line  is  sometimes  used  to  designate  the  line  between 
the  North  and  the  South,  and  it  is  unfortunate  that  it 
should  ever  have  been  coined  thus  to  divide  the 
country  geographically. 

42.  The  Abolitionists.  Lundy,  Garrison. — The  Ab 
olitionists  were  those  opponents  of  slavery  who,  on 
the  ground  that  the  system  was  wrong,  advocated 
its  instant  extinction  by  any  means  whatsoever  and 
without  compensation  to  slave  owners.  Their  move 
ment,  begun  in  a  spirit  of  humanitarianism,  continued 
until  slavery  no  longer  existed  in  the  country.  As 
early  as  the  second  decade  of  the  century  Benjamin 
Lundy,  a  Quaker,  advocated  abolitionist  principles. 
This  man  was  one  of  the  most  unselfish  friends  the 
slave  ever  had.  He  worked  at  his  trade  as  a  saddler  in 
Wheeling,  Va.  (now  W.  Va.),  and  later  published  at 
various  places  a  paper  called  The  Genius  of  Universal 


SLAVERY  A   NATIONAL  ISSUE  67 

Emancipation.  "Infirm,  deaf,  unimpressive  in  speech 
and  bearing,  trudging  on  long  journeys,  and  accepting 
a  decent  poverty,  he  gave  all  the  resources  of  a  strong 
and  sweet  nature  to  the  service  of  the  friendless  and 
unhappy."  *  The  abolitionist  movement  really  be 
came  aggressive,  however,  with  the  establishment  in 
Boston  January  i,  1831,  by  William  Lloyd  Garrison, 
of  a  newspaper  called  The  Liberator.  Garrison,  one 
of  Lundy's  converts,  became  the  leader  of  the  agita 
tion.  In  his  salutatory  editorial  he  said:  "I  will  be 
as  harsh  as  truth  and  as  uncompromising  as  justice. 
On  this  subject  I  do  not  wish  to  think  or  speak  or 
write  with  moderation.  ...  I  am  in  earnest — I  will 
not  equivocate — I  will  not  excuse — I  will  not  retreat 
a  single  inch — and  I  will  be  heard!"  Quoting  Isaiah 
xxviii,  18,  he  termed  the  Constitution  "a  covenant 
with  death  and  an  agreement  with  hell;"  and  his 
arraignment  of  the  national  document  made  enemies 
for  him  in  the  North  as  well  as  in  the  South.  The 
Abolitionists  weakened  their  position  by  their  abso 
lute  refusal  to  countenance  any  laws  that  recognized 
slavery,  thus  repelling  many  conservative  men;  but 
they  gained  force  when  Congress  denied  them  the 
right  of  petition  and  when  President  Jackson  refused 
them  the  use  of  the  United  States  mails.  In  the 
South  they  were  detested  and  Nat  Turner's  insurrec- 

*  Merriam,  38. 


68     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

tion  was  ascribed  to  their  influence.  In  January, 
1832,  they  established  the  New  England  Anti-Slavery 
Society,  and  in  December,  1833,  the  American  Anti- 
Slavery  Society,  which  was  not  dissolved  until  1870. 
The  more  conservative  men,  those  who  believed  in 
using  the  governmental  machinery  in  the  work  of 
abolition,  organized  in  1840  the  Liberty  party ,  which  in 
1848  became  an  element  of  the  Free-Soil  party,  which  in 
turn  became  fused  in  the  Republican  party  in  1854-6. 

43.  Other  Leaders. — Prominent  among  the  Aboli 
tionists  were  Elijah  P.  Lovejoy,  Wendell  Phillips, 
Theodore  Parker,  John  Greenleaf  Whittier,  and  Lydia 
Maria  Child.  Lovejoy,  a  martyr  if  ever  there  was  one, 
in  1837  lost  his  life  in  Alton,  111.,  in  an  attack  by  a  mob 
on  a  building  in  which  he  published  an  anti-slavery 
paper.  Wendell  Phillips  of  Boston  was  one  of  the 
most  polished  and  forceful  of  American  orators. 
Working  often  against  mobs,  he  delivered  many 
speeches  in  behalf  of  the  Negro.  One  of  his  most 
finished  orations  is  that  on  Toussaint  L'Ouverture. 
He  closed  his  law  office  because  he  was  not  willing  to 
swear  that  he  would  support  the  Constitution;  he 
relinquished  the  franchise  because  he  did  not  wish  to 
have  any  personal  responsibility  for  a  government  that 
countenanced  slavery;  and  he  lost  sympathy  with  the 
Christian  church  because  of  its  compromising  attitude 
toward  the  system.  Theodore  Parker,  also  of  Massa- 


SLAVERY  A   NATIONAL  ISSUE  69 

chusetts,  was  a  Unitarian  minister  who  inspired  many 
noble  men  and  women  by  the  courage  with  which  he 
applied  the  principles  of  his  religion  to  current  political 
issues.  Whittier  was  the  poet  of  the  anti-slavery 
cause.  Such  a  poem  as  The  Slave  Ships  showed  forth 
the  horrors  of  the  slave-trade,  and  one  like  The  Fare 
well  showed  the  iniquity  of  separating  children  from 
their  parents.  Lydia  Maria  Child  was  a  noble  woman 
whose  Appeal  for  that  Class  of  Americans  called  Afri 
cans  (1833)  was  the  first  anti-slavery  book  published 
in  the  United  States.  She  ably  defended  John  Brown's 
exploit  at  Harper's  Ferry.  In  this  connection  mention 
should  also  be  made  of  the  Appeal  of  David  Walker, 
a  Negro  of  Boston,  which  appeared  in  1829.  This 
work  was  addressed  to  the  slaves,  being  a  recital 
of  their  wrongs  and  a  protest  against  proscription. 
Its  incendiary  tone  created  great  excitement  in  the 
South,  the  governors  of  Georgia  and  Virginia  sending 
to  their  legislatures  special  messages  about  it.  Repre 
sentative  of  the  more  conservative  anti-slavery  senti 
ment  was  William  Ellery  Channing,  the  New  England 
idealist  and  scholar,  advanced  Unitarian  and  social 
reformer.  In  1835  he  published  his  Slavery,  which 
with  lofty  spirit  showed  that  the  institution  was  out 
of  harmony  with  the  upward  movement  of  humanity. 
In  restraint  and  pose,  in  logic  and  diction,  the  little 
book  is  classic. 


70     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

44.  Southern  Sentiment  against  Slavery. — While 
no  one  in  the  South  took  such  radical  ground  against 
slavery  as  the  Abolitionists  (except  here  and  there 
perhaps  a  character  like  the  sturdy  and  independent 
Cassius  Clay  of  Kentucky),  there  were  many  indi 
viduals  in  this  section  who  for  one  reason  or  another 
desired  to  be  relieved  of  the  system  of  slavery.  We 
have  seen  that  in  the  Revolutionary  War  the  senti 
ment  of  many  representative  patriots  was  opposed  to 
slavery,  and  that  as  early  as  1778  Virginia  attempted 
to  abolish  it.  The  efforts  in  this  state  were  most  pro 
longed,  new  attempts  being  made  as  late  as  1829  and 
1831-2.  These  would  have  succeeded  if  it  had  not 
been  for  the  state's  unfair  system  of  representation,  of 
which  Jefferson  so  frequently  complained.  From  some 
petitions  of  1776  to  the  Constitutional  Convention  in 
the  state,  it  is  to  be  seen  that  North  Carolina  also 
made  efforts  in  the  same  direction,  renewing  in  1835 
her  attempt  for  gradual  abolition.  Here,  however,  as 
in  Virginia,  the  "interests,"  represented  by  the  large 
owners  and  planters,  had  never  allowed  to  the  anti- 
slavery  people  fair  representation.  In  South  Carolina 
the  "up-country"  was  likewise  opposed  to  slavery; 
but  the  subject  did  not  succeed  in  getting  a  real  hear 
ing  until  after  1808.  In  1819,  Hayne  leading  the  re 
form,  it  was  only  by  a  majority  of  3  in  the  Senate  that 
the  state  decided  not  to  prohibit  the  importation  of 


SLAVERY  A   NATIONAL  ISSUE  71 

slaves  from  other  states.  It  seems  that  the  Charleston 
capitalists,  with  Hayne  as  their  spokesman,  desired  to 
check  importation  for  two  reasons,  one  to  make  their 
own  slave  property  more  valuable,  and  the  other  to 
start  in  South  Carolina  other  industries  than  cotton 
and  rice  production.  However  selfish  the  motive, 
such  a  movement  would  have  had  beneficent  results, 
and  other  men  as  well  as  Hayne  realized  the  benefits 
that  would  accrue  to  South  Carolina  from  a  well- 
grounded  industrialism.  Generally  it  was  the  Scotch- 
Irish  people  in  the  " up-country"  of  the  state  who 
favored  the  overthrow  of  slavery  in  order  that  they 
might  control  their  states  as  well  as  because  many  of 
them  actually  opposed  slavery  on  moral  grounds.  It 
was  this  "up-country"  element  in  Virginia  (then 
largely  in  what  is  now  West  Virginia)  that  fought  and 
largely  won  the  Revolution,  and  that  thus  had  much 
reason  to  control  the  state. 

45.  State  Rights. — While,  however,  there  was  some 
sentiment  in  the  South  for  the  freedom  of  the  slaves 
or  the  amelioration  of  their  condition,  more  and  more 
the  dominant  thought  in  this  section  became  crys 
tallized  in  what  was  known  as  the  doctrine  of  State 
Rights.  This  term  designates  those  rights  of  govern 
ment  and  administration  which  a  state  that  has  be 
come  a  member  of  a  federal  union  may  still  exercise, 
and  within  the  sphere  of  whose  activity  the  central 


72     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

government  may  not  legally  intrude.  It  was  claimed 
by  the  advocates  of  the  principle  that  while  the  federal 
government  was  given  specific  powers  by  the  Consti 
tution,  each  state  retained  exclusive  control  of  matters 
relating  to  the  everyday  life  of  its  people.  Calhoun  was 
the  foremost  expounder  of  the  view,  and  the  theories 
of  Nullification  and  Secession  were  based  upon  it. 

46.  Liberia. — It  is  now  time  to  record  the  progress 
of  an  attempt  by  some  enlightened  Americans  to  solve 
the  problem  of  the  free  Negro,  who  labored  under  so 
many  disabilities.  As  early  as  1787  Sierra  Leone  in 
Africa  had  been  founded  by  the  English  as  a  colony 
for  free  Negroes,  some  of  whom  had  gained  their  free 
dom  in  consequence  of  Lord  Mansfield's  decision  in 
1772,  more  of  whom  had  been  discharged  from  the 
British  army  after  the  American  Revolution,  and  all 
of  whom  were  leading  in  England  a  more  or  less 
precarious  existence.  In  1 787  about  four  hundred  were 
taken  to  a  district  purchased  from  the  king  of  Sierra 
Leone,  and  five  years  later  twelve  hundred  Negroes 
who  had  escaped  from  the  United  States  to  Canada 
were  also  taken  thither.  England  cared  with  wisdom 
for  the  Negroes,  giving  them  a  daily  allowance  for  the 
first  six  months,  then  assigning  lands  to  them,  and 
generally  seeking  to  bring  them  under  the  influence 
of  religious  education.  As  early  as  1783  it  had  been 
proposed  that  such  a  colony  as  this  should  be  estab- 


SLAVERY  A   NATIONAL  ISSUE  73 

lished  for  free  American  Negroes;  but  it  was  not  until 
1816  that  the  American  Colonization  Society  was 
formed,  and  not  until  1822,  after  a  treaty  with  certain 
native  princes  had  been  concluded,  that  active  settle 
ment  began  under  the  direction  of  the  heroic  Josiah 
Ashmun,  each  man  being  allotted  a  tract  of  thirty 
acres  with  the  means  of  cultivating  it.  After  a  while, 
however,  the  agents  of  the  society  became  discouraged 
at  the  difficulties  that  had  to  be  overcome  and  returned 
to  America  with  a  few  faint-hearted  colonists.  Others 
rallied  around  a  spirited  and  determined  Negro, 
Elijah  Johnson,  and  remained,  enlarging  the  colony 
by  the  purchase  of  new  tracts  of  land.  The  trials 
were  many,  but  in  spite  of  deprivations,  dissensions, 
and  the  threatening  attitude  of  native  chiefs,  Liberia 
continued  to  exist.  In  1847  tne  country  was  officially 
left  to  its  own  resources,  becoming  an  independent 
republic.  In  1833,  in  his  pamphlet  entitled  Thoughts 
on  African  Colonization,  Garrison  showed  the  futility 
of  the  whole  plan  as  a  means  of  solving  the  problem 
of  slavery  in  the  United  States;  and  time  has  justified 
his  view,  for  Liberia  has  had  no  abiding  influence  on 
the  position  of  the  Negro  in  America. 

47.  Abolition  Abroad. — While  this  experiment  was 
still  in  its  early  stage,  and  while  the  Abolitionists 
were  just  forming  their  organizations,  news  came  in 
1833  that  at  last  England  had  freed  her  slaves.  This 


74     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

she  had  done  in  a  typically  English  way,  paying 
£20,000,000  to  the  slave-owners  in  her  dominions  and 
keeping  the  slaves  under  a  system  of  apprenticeship 
for  a  term  of  years.  Garrison  now  brought  an  English 
orator  to  America,  and  generally  the  achievement 
excited  interest.  It  is  well  to  observe  the  progress  of 
abolition  in  other  countries  also.  Denmark  in  1792 
had  been  the  first  European  power  to  abolish  the 
slave-trade.  Sweden  abolished  the  traffic  in  1813, 
Holland  abolished  the  trade  in  1814  and  slavery  itself 
in  her  colonies  in  1846,  and  Portugal  formally  forbade 
the  trade  in  1836.  The  experience  of  France  in  Santo 
Domingo  has  already  been  sketched.  In  1818  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade  was  effectually  accom 
plished  in  this  colony,  and  the  independence  of  the 
island  was  formally  recognized  by  France  in  1825. 
The  South  American  countries  generally  abolished 
slavery  as  they  emancipated  themselves  from  Spain. 
Throughout  this  period,  however,  in  spite  of  all  these 
efforts  for  reform,  there  was  an  illicit  slave-traffic  on 
the  high  seas,  and  overtures  for  an  international  right 
of  search  were  constantly  made  between  the  great 
nations.  These  efforts  did  not  really  succeed  until 
Abraham  Lincoln  became  president  of  the  United 
States.  In  1860  the  three  representative  systems  of 
slavery  in  the  New  World  were  those  in  the  United 
States,  in  Cuba,  and  in  Brazil. 


SLAVERY  A  NATIONAL  ISSUE  75 

48.  Annexation  of    Texas. — In    1821    Mexico   re 
volted  from  Spain.    At  first  she  tried  an  imperial  form 
of  government,  but  in  1824  became  a  federal  republic. 
Texas,  then  a  part  of  Mexico,  was  joined  with  two 
other  provinces  into  a  state.     Here  American  immi 
gration  increased  so  rapidly  that  Mexico,  becoming 
alarmed,  established  military  rule  and  passed  anti- 
slavery  laws.     Texas  revolted,   and  an  attempt  to 
reduce  her  to  submission  resulted  in  her  gaining  her 
independence  in  1836  under  the  lead  of  General  Sam 
Houston.     Independence  was  followed  by  a  desire 
for  annexation  to  the  United  States;  but  the  North 
feared  such  an  addition  to  slave  territory.     In  1844 
the  question  was  the  leading  one  in  the  presidential 
election,  and  James  K.  Polk  came  into  office  on  a 
platform  pledged  to  annexation.)  The  Mexican  War 
which  followed,  growing  out  of  a  dispute  between 
Mexico  and  Texas  with  reference  to  the  boundary 
line,  was  generally  regarded  in  the  North  as  a  contest 
waged  in  behalf  of  slavery,  and  it  did  much  to  embitter 
the  sections  against  each  other. 

49.  Compromise  of  1850.    Fugitive  Slave  Law.— 
Various  new  matters  now  demanded  legislation.    The 
fact  that  some  Northern  people  assisted  slaves  to  es 
cape  was  generally  obnoxious   to   Southern  minds. 
Moreover,  aside  from  Texas,  other  territory  in  the 
Southwest  had  been  acquired  for  the  nation  by  the 


76     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

Mexican  War.  The  North,  by  a  bill  known  as  the 
Wilmot  Proviso,  sought  to  enact  that  slavery  should  be 
prohibited  in  this  territory;  and  the  South  contended 
that  it  should  be  free  from  federal  interference.  More 
over,  California,  that  had  grown  up  all  in  a  year  as  a 
result  of  the  discovery  of  gold,  was  now  seeking  ad 
mission  as  a  free  state,  without  even  having  been  a 
regularly  organized  territory.  Accordingly,  early  in 
1850  Henry  Clay  introduced  in  the  Senate  some  new 
compromise  resolutions.  These  resulted  in  two  bills 
whose  provisions,  as  finally  agreed  on,  were  in  sub 
stance  as  follows:  (i)  California  was  to  be  admitted  as 
a  free  state;  (2)  Utah  and  New  Mexico  were  to  be 
organized  as  territories  with  no  provision  as  to  slavery; 
(3)  the  boundaries  of  Texas  were  to  be  fixed  substan 
tially  as  they  are  at  present,  and  $10,000,000  was  to 
be  paid  this  state  for  her  relinquishment  of  boundary 
claims  on  the  nation  for  the  payment  of  her  public 
debt;  (4)  the  slave-trade  was  to  be  prohibited  in  the 
District  of  Columbia;  and  (5)  a  new  and  stringent 
fugitive  slave  law  was  to  be  passed.  Both  political 
parties  professed  to  be  satisfied,  and  Henry  Clay  once 
more  went  home  beguiled  by  the  fancy  that  he  had 
saved  the  Union.  Neither  side,  however,  was  really 
satisfied,  and  the  whole  issue  was  to  be  brought  forth 
again  only  four  years  later  by  the  trouble  in  Kansas. 
The  North  was  especially  angered  by  the  Fugitive 


SLAVERY  A   NATIONAL  ISSUE  77 

Slave  Law.  Gradually  the  states  in  that  section  had 
succeeded  in  obstructing  the  execution  of  the  act  of 
1793,  and  in  1842  Pennsylvania  by  a  case  at  court 
definitely  decided  that  her  state  officials  could  not  be 
compelled  to  aid  in  the  return  of  runaway  slaves. 
The  new  law  made  possible  many  gross  abuses.  It 
provided  for  the  appointment  in  each  county  of  a 
federal  commissioner  who  was  to  decide  without  a 
jury  upon  the  identity  of  each  fugitive  brought  before 
him.  He  was  in  no  case  to  accept  the  word  of  the 
fugitive,  and  when  he  returned  a  man  he  was  to  re 
ceive  for  his  fee  twice  as  much  money  as  when  he  did 
not  return  one.  The  writ  for  a  return  moreover  was 
to  be  executed  by  United  States  marshals  upon  whom 
a  heavy  penalty  was  visited  if  a  slave  escaped.  Any 
person  could  be  called  to  the  assistance  of  a  marshal, 
and  anyone  who  assisted  a  fugitive  was  to  be  heavily 
punished.  All  of  this  was  too  much  for  the  Northern 
states,  which  began  to  make  the  act  of  no  effect.  In 
the  interval  1854-60  (these  dates  inclusive)  nine  states 
passed  what  were  known  as  Personal  Liberty  Laws. 
These  generally  forbade  state  officers  to  assist  in  the 
return  of  alleged  fugitives;  secured  counsel  for  the 
fugitives,  who  were  also  to  have  the  benefit  of  habeas 
corpus  and  trial  by  jury;  prohibited  the  use  of  state 
jails  for  the  detention  of  supposed  runaways;  and  im 
posed  a  heavy  penalty  for  the  seizure  of  any  free  person. 


78     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

50.  The  Underground  Railroad.— "  The  Under 
ground  Railroad"  was  the  name  given  to  the  various 
means  by  which  those  in  the  North  who  opposed 
slavery  assisted  fugitives  in  escaping  from  their 
masters  and  in  finding  their  way  to  places  of  safety. 
By  the  system  thousands  of  persons  were  enabled  to 
get  to  Canada  beyond  the  reach  of  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Law.  The  most  favored  routes  were  through  Ohio 
and  Pennsylvania.  At  various  places  there  were 
" stations,"  generally  private  houses  where  the  slaves 
were  kept  and  fed  in  garrets  or  cellars  during  the  day, 
being  sent  on  their  way  when  night  came.  The  work 
was  done  at  great  personal  risk,  as  it  was  done  in 
defiance  of  the  law  and  as  Southern  legislatures  offered 
large  rewards  for  the  delivery  of  assistants  caught 
south  of  the  Mason  and  Dixon's  line.  The  magnitude 
of  the  operations  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  for 
years  before  the  Civil  War  about  500  Negroes  an 
nually  made  trips  from  Canada  to  the  South  to  assist 
their  friends  in  escaping.  One  Negro  woman,  Harriet 
Tubman,  who  had  escaped  from  Maryland,  made 
nineteen  journeys  into  the  South  and  brought  away 
about  300  slaves.  Many  Northern  people  suffered  in 
the  cause.  Levi  Coffin,  a  Quaker  of  Newport,  Ind., 
was  commonly  considered  the  head  of  the  enterprise. 
Once  being  asked  under  oath  before  a  grand  jury  if 
he  had  aided  slaves,  he  replied  that  he  had  no  legal 


SLAVERY  A   NATIONAL  ISSUE  79 

knowledge  of  having  done  so.  He  had  ministered,  he 
said,  to  certain  destitute  persons  who  told  him  that 
they  had  been  slaves;  but  he  had  only  their  word  for 
it,  and  as  the  word  of  a  slave  could  not  be  received 
in  court,  he  could  not  reasonably  be  considered  guilty. 
He  was  released.  Everybody  did  not  fare  so  well, 
however.  Ruth  Shore,  of  Sandusky,  0.,  paid  in  fines 
for  assisting  runaway  slaves  a  total  of  $3,000.  Thomas 
Garrett  paid  $8,000,  and  Calvin  Fairbank  served 
seventeen  years  in  the  penitentiary  for  his  work  in 
the  cause.  In  spite  of  legal  pressure,  however,  the 
work  went  on.  The  investigator  of  the  subject  * 
names  3,211  "agents,  station  keepers,  and  con 
ductors."  Coffin  received  annually  in  his  house  about 
100  fugitives,  and  Garrett  helped  altogether  as  many 
as  2,700  to  escape. 

51.  Renewal  of  the  Slave-Trade. — We  have  seen 
that  the  first  national  act  against  the  slave-trade  was 
passed  in  1794  and  that  the  traffic  was  nominally 
abolished  in  1807.  The  measure  of  the  latter  year 
was  lacking  from  the  first  in  any  adequate  machinery 
for  its  enforcement,  and  before  long  the  national 
government  became  aware  that  an  illicit  trade  was 
still  being  carried  on.  Through  such  narrow  inlets 
as  those  near  the  ports  of  Galveston  and  Fernandina, 
slaves  were  smuggled  in,  sometimes  in  great  numbers. 

*  Siebert. 


8o     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

From  1820  to  1840,  largely  as  the  result  of  a  repressive 
measure  of  1819,  the  traffic  declined  greatly.  On 
account  of  the  great  development  of  the  cotton  in 
dustry,  however,  there  grew  up  in  the  Southern  states 
after  1820  a  great  demand  for  more  land  and  more 
slaves.  The  desire  for  land  accounted  for  the  an 
nexation  of  Texas,  and  that  for  more  slaves  was  at 
first  satisfied  for  the  most  part  by  importations  from 
Virginia  and  Maryland,  which  states  now  became 
joined  to  the  far  South  by  the  closest  ties  of  interest. 
Thus  matters  drifted  until  1850,  between  which  date 
and  1860  there  was  so  much  friction  between  the 
North  and  the  South  and  such  an  increase  in  the 
value  of  slave  labor  that  the  controlling  opinion  of 
the  South  was  but  voiced  in  a  resolution  offered  in  a 
commercial  convention  in  Vicksburg  in  1859  to  the 
effect  that  "all  laws,  State  or  Federal,  prohibiting  the 
African  slave-trade,  ought  to  be  repealed."  In  the 
decade  just  mentioned  there  was  such  a  remarkable 
increase  of  illicit  traffic  and  actual  importations  that 
the  movement  may  almost  be  termed  a  re-opening  of 
the  slave-trade.*  The  traffic  became  more  and  more 
open  and  defiant  until,  as  Stephen  A.  Douglas  com 
puted,  as  many  as  15,000  slaves  were  brought  into  the 
country  in  1859.  It  was  not  until  the  Lincoln  gov 
ernment  in  1862  hanged  the  first  trader  who  ever 

*  DuBois,  Suppression  of  the  Slave-Trade,  178. 


SLAVERY  A   NATIONAL  ISSUE  8l 

suffered  the  extreme  penalty  of  the  law,  and  made 
with  Great  Britain  a  treaty  embodying  the  principle 
of  international  right  of  search,  that  the  trade  was 
effectually  checked.  By  the  end  of  the  war  it  was 
entirely  suppressed,  though  as  late  as  1866  a  squadron 
of  ships  patrolled  the  slave  coast. 

52.  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill. — The  point  of  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  of  1854  is  very  simple,  this 
measure  being  merely  a  repealing  of  the  provisions  of 
the  Missouri  Compromise  in  the  interest  of  the  slave 
power.  It  was  largely  the  act  of  Stephen  A.  Douglas, 
chairman  of  the  Senate  Committee  on  Territories, 
who  contended  that  the  Compromise  of  1850  had  in 
giving  territories  the  right  of  option  as  to  slavery 
annulled  the  Missouri  Compromise.  This  construc 
tion  was  embodied  in  a  bill  for  the  organization  of 
the  territories  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  with  limits 
much  larger  than  those  of  the  present  states  of  Kansas 
and  Nebraska.  It  provided  for  "squatter  sover 
eignty,"  that  is,  that  the  people  in  any  territory  should 
be  free  to  form  and  regulate  their  domestic  institu 
tions  in  their  own  way,  subject  only  to  the  Constitu 
tion  of  the  United  States.  The  North  felt  that  it  was 
outraged  by  the  bill,  and  immediately  the  Republican 
party  began  to  be  formed. 

63.  The  Anthony  Burns  Incident. — It  was  not  long 
before  public  sentiment  began  to  make  itself  felt,  and 


82      A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

the  first  demonstration  took  place  in  Boston.  An 
thony  Burns  was  a  slave  who  escaped  from  Virginia 
and  made  his  way  to  Boston,  where  he  was  at  work 
in  the  winter  of  1853-4.  He  was  discovered  by  a 
United  States  marshal  who  presented  a  writ  for  his 
arrest  just  at  the  time  of  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise  in  May,  1854.  Public  feeling  became 
greatly  aroused.  Wendell  Phillips  and  Theodore 
Parker  delivered  strong  addresses  at  a  meeting  in 
Faneuil  Hall  while  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  rescue 
Burns  from  the  Court  House  was  made  under  the 
leadership  of  Thomas  W.  Higginson,  who,  with  others 
of  the  attacking  party,  was  wounded.  It  was  finally 
decided  in  court  that  Burns  must  be  returned  to  his 
master.  The  law  was  obeyed;  but  Boston  had  been 
made  very  angry,  and  generally  her  feeling  had 
counted  for  something  in  the  history  of  the  country. 
The  people  draped  their  houses  in  mourning  and  hissed 
the  procession  that  took  Burns  to  his  ship.  At  the 
wharf  a  riot  was  averted  only  by  a  minister's  call  to 
prayer.  This  incident  did  more  to  crystallize  North 
ern  sentiment  against  slavery  than  any  other  except 
the  exploit  of  John  Brown,  and  this  was  the  last  time 
that  a  fugitive  slave  was  taken  out  of  Boston.  Burns 
himself  was  afterwards  bought  from  his  master  by 
popular  subscription.  He  became  a  free  citizen  of 
Boston,  and  ultimately  a  Baptist  minister  in  Canada. 


SLAVERY  A   NATIONAL  ISSUE  83 

54.  Dred  Scott  Decision. — One  further  act  was  yet 
to  fill  the  cup  of  the  North  to  the  brim.  In  1834  Dr. 
Emerson,  an  army  officer  stationed  in  Missouri,  re 
moved  to  Illinois,  taking  with  him  his  slave,  Dred 
Scott.  Two  years  later,  again  accompanied  by  Scott, 
he  went  to  Minnesota.  In  Illinois  slavery  was  pro 
hibited  by  state  law  and  Minnesota  was  a  free  terri 
tory.  In  1838  Emerson  returned  with  Scott  to  Mis 
souri.  After  a  while  the  slave  raised  the  important 
question,  Had  not  his  residence  outside  of  a  slave  state 
made  him  a  free  man?  Beaten  by  his  master  in  1848, 
with  the  aid  of  anti-slavery  lawyers  Scott  brought  a 
suit  against  him  for  assault  and  battery,  the  circuit 
court  of  St.  Louis  rendering  a  decision  in  his  favor. 
Emerson  appealed  and  in  1852  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  State  reversed  the  decision  of  the  lower  court. 
Not  long  after  this  Emerson  sold  Scott  to  a  citizen  of 
New  York  named  Sandford.  Scott  now  brought  suit 
against  Sandford,  on  the  ground  that  they  were 
citizens  of  different  states.  The  case  finally  reached 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  which  in 
1857  handed  down  the  decision  that  Scott  was  not  a 
citizen  of  Missouri  and  had  no  standing  in  the  federal 
courts,  that  a  slave  was  only  a  piece  of  property,  and 
that  a  master  might  take  his  property  to  any  place 
he  chose  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States. 
The  ownership  of  Scott  and  his  family  soon  passed 


84     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

to  a  Massachusetts  family  by  whom  they  were  lib 
erated;  but  the  important  decision  that  his  case  had 
called  forth  aroused  the  most  intense  excitement 
throughout  the  country. 

55.  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin."— In  the  year  1852  ap 
peared  a  book  that  had  an  amazing  sale  and  that 
stirred  the  heart  of  the  country  on  the  subject  of 
slavery  as  it  had  never  been  moved  before.  For  some 
years  before  the  Compromise  of  1850  Harriet  Beecher 
Stowe,  wife  of  a  theological  professor,  had  been  living 
with  her  husband  in  Cincinnati.  There  she  was  close 
to  the  system  of  slavery  and  saw  much  of  its  actual 
working.  In  1850  Professor  Stowe  accepted  a  position 
in  Bowdoin  College,  Brunswick,  Me.,  and  removed 
his  family  thither.  Here  in  the  form  of  a  story  with 
the  title  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  Mrs.  Stowe  brought  to 
gether  her  observations  on  slavery,  first  as  a  serial 
and  then  as  a  book.  What  the  work  lacked  in  literary 
finish,  it  more  than  made  up  in  living  interest.  Its 
characters  represented  strongly  the  different  types 
of  people  living  in  the  South.  Here  was  Uncle  Tom 
himself,  embodiment  of  all  that  was  pious  in  the 
Negro  nature;  behind  him  a  long  line  of  plantation 
Negroes.  Here  were  little  Eva,  a  spirit  of  light  in  the 
sad  world  around  her;  her  father,  the  over-indulgent 
and  improvident  master;  Aunt  Ophelia  from  New 
England,  to  whom  the  whole  South  was  "shiftless"; 


SLAVERY  A   NATIONAL  ISSUE  85 

Cassy,  the  slave  darling  fallen  on  evil  days;  Simon 
Legree,  the  worst  type  of  plantation  slave-owner;  and 
George  Harris,  the  ambitious  spirit  longing  to  break 
its  bonds.  The  book  was  avowedly  a  novel  of  pur 
pose,  and  many  people  have  criticised  it  as  overdrawn. 
No  work,  however,  that  attempts  to  set  forth  a  great 
moral  wrong  can  be  truly  overdrawn,  for  actual  suf 
fering  is  always  greater  than  any  portrayal  of  it.  At 
any  rate  the  South  felt  itself  misrepresented;  so  that 
in  1853  Mrs.  Stowe  published  A  Key  to  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,  setting  forth  the  documents  and  facts  used  in 
the  story,  and  showing,  among  other  things,  that  the 
prototype  of  Uncle  Tom  was  Josiah  Henson,  a  Negro 
who,  born  a  slave  in  Maryland,  escaped  to  Canada  in 
1828,  became  a  lecturer  in  the  United  States,  and  on 
the  last  of  three  trips  to  England  was  entertained  by 
Queen  Victoria  at  Windsor  Castle.  Mrs.  Stowe  wrote 
a  great  many  other  books;  but,  with  the  exception  of 
Dred,  a  book  ominous  with  the  note  of  impending 
disaster,  they  all  pale  into  insignificance  by  the  side 
of  her  great  success.  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  however, 
was  alone  strong  enough  for  a  life-work,  and  even  to 
day  it  receives  frequent  presentations  on  the  stage. 

56.  Henry  Ward  Beecher. — Of  only  less  service  to 
the  cause  of  the  slave  than  Mrs.  Stowe  was  her 
brother,  Henry  Ward  Beecher.  This  remarkable 
preacher,  by  his  bold  support  of  reforms,  made  his 


86      A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

large  and  intelligent  congregation  at  Plymouth 
Church,  Brooklyn,  one  of  the  .most  famous  in  the 
world.  He  was  untiring  in  his  support  of  the  anti- 
slavery  cause  and  on  one  occasion  appealed  to  his 
audience  by  bringing  a  slave  girl  into  his  pulpit.  His 
greatest  achievement  perhaps  was  a  series  of  speeches 
in  England  in  1863  in  the  delivery  of  which  he  was 
constantly  hissed.  As  the  cotton  manufacturing  in 
dustry  of  England  was  dependent  on  the  supply  from 
the  cotton  states,  opinion  in  that  country  with  refer 
ence  to  the  Civil  War  in  America  was  not  all  on  the 
side  of  the  North;  and  Beecher  did  much  to  win  favor 
for  the  side  of  the  Union. 

57.  Charles  Simmer. — What  Beecher  was  in  the 
pulpit  Charles  Sumner  was  in  the  United  States 
Senate.  This  distinguished  and  scholarly  statesman 
came  into  prominence  in  1845  by  a  Fourth  of  July  ora 
tion  denouncing  war.  In  1851  he  was  sent  to  the 
Senate,  of  which  he  was  a  member  until  his  death  in 
1874.  Though  not  an  Abolitionist,  he  became  the 
leader  of  the  anti-slavery  forces,  and  by  his  bitter 
invective  and  unflinching  opposition  to  the  Com 
promise  of  1850  and  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  he 
incurred  the  intense  hatred  of  the  South,  receiving 
many  threats  of  personal  violence.  In  1856  in  fact, 
while  writing  at  his  desk  in  the  senate  chamber,  he  was 
severely  assaulted  with  a  cane  by  Preston  S.  Brooks 


SLAVERY  A   NATIONAL  ISSUE  87 

of  South  Carolina.  The  attack  greatly  embittered  the 
North.  Sumner  himself  was  forced  to  retire  tempo 
rarily  from  public  life,  and  never  fully  recovered. 
As  early  as  1864  he  formulated  what  was  known  as 
the  "State  Suicide"  theory  with  reference  to  the 
seceded  states,  and  he  became  the  leader  of  the  op 
position  to  President  Johnson's  plan  of  reconstruction. 
Lit  was  due  to  him  more  than  to  any  other  man  that 
the  principle  of  suffrage,  irrespective  of  race  or  color, 
became  fixed  and  universal  in  the  American  system. 

58.  John  Brown. — For  forty  years  slavery  had  been 
the  most  important  subject  before  the  American 
people.  Garrison  had  been  persecuted,  Lovejoy  had 
been  killed,  Phillips  and  Douglass  had  talked,  slaves 
had  escaped  to  Canada,  and  Mrs.  Stowe  had  written 
a  book;  and  still  slavery  had  gone  on  its  masterful 
career,  seemingly  invincible.  At  length,  however,  the 
tension  had  reached  the  point  where  only  a  spark  was 
needed  to  send  the  country  into  flame.  That  spark 
was  supplied  by  John  Brown.  This  man  was  born 
in  Connecticut  in  1800.  In  his  earlier  years  he  made 
various  experiments  in  business,  in  all  of  which  he  was 
unsuccessful.  After  living  for  years  a  very  unsettled 
life,  in  1855  he  joined  five  of  his  sons  in  Kansas,  where 
the  opponents  and  the  advocates  of  slavery  were 
fiercely  arrayed  against  each  other.  Here,  as  Wendell 
Phillips  said,  he  actually  began  life.  He  became  the 


88     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

leader  of  the  radical  anti-slavery  men,  and  on  May  24, 
1856,  he  massacred  five  of  his  opponents  at  Potta- 
watomie.  Later  in  the  year,  at  Ossawatomie,  he  at 
tracted  national  attention  by  the  energy  with  which 
he  repelled  a  strong  invading  force  from  Missouri. 
All  of  this  was  merely  the  execution  of  his  conviction 
that  as  slavery  was  an  unholy  cause  he  was  justified 
in  killing  slaveholders.  The  really  notable  deed  of  his 
life  occurred  in  1859.^  He  conceived  a  plan  to  seize, 
with  the  aid  of  an  armed  force,  some  strong  position 
in  the  mountains  of  Virginia,  whence  he  might  sally 
forth  and  make  the  slave  power  generally  insecure. 
In  pursuance  of  his  plan,  as  a  blind  he  engaged  a  farm 
near  his  objective  point,  and  on  October  16,  1859, 
with  nineteen  assistants,  five  of  whom  were  Negroes, 
he  surprised  and  captured  the  arsenal  at  Harper's 
Ferry.  Two  days  later,  after  being  wounded,  he  was 
captured  by  United  States  troops  under  the  command 
of  Robert  E.  Lee.  He  was  convicted  of  treason  and 
murder,  and  hanged  December  2nd.  John  Brown's 
exploit  made  a  profound  impression  on  the  country, 
and  he  has  since  been  the  subject  of  most  conflicting 
opinion.  Some  people  think  of  him  as  a  fanatic  who 
committed  a  criminal  deed,  while  to  others  he  was  a 
man  of  noble  purpose  borne  by  the  intensity  of  his 
convictions  into  martyrdom. 


CHAPTER  VI 

\ 

NEGRO  EFFORT  FOR  FREEDOM  AND   CULTURE 

59.  Strivings  of  the  Slave. — To  the  Negro  in  bonds 
the  institution  of  slavery  was  one  long  night  with 
little  hope  of  day.  His  highest  impulses,  his  tenderest 
emotions,  his  every  incentive  to  high  endeavor,  felt 
the  blasting  effects  of  the  system.  He  might  work  in 
the  field  from  sunrise  to  sunset;  but  none  of  the 
fruit  of  his  labor  was  his  own.  He  might  cherish  the 
tenderest  sentiments  of  a  father,  only  to  see  his  child 
torn  from  his  arms  forever.  He  might  possess  lofty 
ambition  or  distinctive  genius,  and  find  effort  made 
to  deprive  him  of  every  quality  of  manhood.  With 
his  brethren  he  sang  in  the  night-time  his  wild  "sorrow 
song,"  "I've  been  a-listenin'  all  the  night  long;"  and 
in  yearning  for  the  joys  of  heaven  he  prayed  for 
deliverance  from  physical  bondage.  To  escape  at 
once  from  slavery,  however,  was  possible  only  by 
regular  manumission,  by  open  revolt,  or  by  running 
away.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  review  some 
of  the  efforts  put  forth  by  Negroes  themselves  to  cast 
off  the  chains  that  bound  them  and  to  advance  in 
education  and  culture. 


QO     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

60.  Fugitives. — In  spite  of  the  harsh  laws  against 
fugitives  and  the  certain  trail  of  bloodhounds,  a  great 
many  slaves  elected  to  run  away.  The  attempt  was 
commonly  to  direct  one's  way  to  the  North,  where 
the  fugitive  slave  law  of  1793  was  not  generally  in 
force.  Traveling  largely  by  night  under  the  guidance 
of  the  north  star,  the  Negroes  sustained  themselves 
as  best  they  could.  The  Dismal  Swamp  in  Virginia 
became  a  famous  hiding-place.  A  colony  here  defied 
owners  right  in  the  midst  of  a  strong  slavery  com 
munity.  Soldiers  never  ventured  into  the  colony, 
and  bloodhounds  sent  thither  did  not  return.  As 
many  of  the  slaves  made  their  way  into  Canada,  an 
attempt  was  made  in  1828  to  effect  some  arrangement 
with  Great  Britain  for  the  return  of  those  who  es 
caped  thither;  but  this  failed.  In  the  far  South,  while 
Florida  was  still  under  Spanish  rule,  there  was  some 
movement  in  the  opposite  direction,  many  fugitives 
taking  refuge  and  intermarrying  with  the  Indians.  In 
1816  American  troops  blew  up  a  fort  on  the  Appalachi- 
cola  that  was  the  headquarters  of  many  slaves  who  had 
run  away;  and  the  first  Seminole  War  was  very  largely 
caused  by  fugitives.  When  Florida  was  annexed 
slave-hunting  increased,  and  then  the  escaping  Ne 
groes  made  their  way  as  far  south  as  the  Everglades. 
The  second  Seminole  War  was  even  more  directly 
caused  by  fugitives  than  the  first.  The  famous  chief- 


EFFORT  FOR  FREEDOM  AND  CULTURE  91 

tain  Osceola  had  a  wife  who  was  the  daughter  of  a 
Negro  woman  who  had  found  refuge  with  the  Indians. 
This  woman  (the  wife)  was  seized  in  1835  while  at 
Fort  King,  being  claimed  as  a  slave  by  her  mother's 
former  owner.  Osceola  vowed  revenge,  and  was 
temporarily  imprisoned.  On  being  released  he  con 
ducted  the  war  with  remarkable  bravery  and  resource, 
and  it  stands  to  the  eternal  shame  of  American  arms 
that  he  was  captured  under  a  flag  of  truce. 

61.  Insurrections. — It  always  happens  when  one 
race  is  in  subjection  to  another  that  among  those 
in  power  there  is  constant  fear  of  an  uprising.  This 
fact  accounts  for  much  of  the  harshness  of  the  slave 
codes  and  for  the  attempts  to  check  importations 
of  Negroes.  On  plantations  patrolmen  frequently 
searched  the  quarters  for  concealed  weapons.  All 
told,  however,  the  insurrections  of  slaves  in  America 
were  very  few  in  number.  In  1687  there  was  in  Vir 
ginia  a  conspiracy  among  the  blacks  in  the  Northern 
Neck  that  was  detected  just  in  time  to  prevent 
slaughter;  and  in  Surry  County  in  1710  there  was  a 
similar  plot,  betrayed  by  one  of  the  conspirators. 
The  attempt  in  New  York  in  1712  resulted  in  the 
execution  of  many  Negroes.  In  1740  some  slaves  on 
the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  under  the  lead  of  one  of 
their  number  named  Cato,  began  an  indiscriminate 
slaughter  of  the  whites  in  which  many  lives  were  lost. 


92      A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

The  news  came  to  Wilton  while  the  people  were  in 
church,  and  the  Negroes  were  soon  overtaken  in  a 
large  field  celebrating  their  achievement  with  draughts 
of  rum.  They  were  dispersed  and  their  leaders 
hanged.  More  ambitious  in  plan  than  this  attempt 
was  the  effort  made  in  Richmond  in  1800  and  known 
as  Gabriel's  Insurrection.  This  attempt ' '  was  planned 
by  two  young  and  intelligent  negroes;  Gabriel,  a 
slave,  twenty-four  years  old,  and  one  Jack  Bowler, 
aged  twenty-eight,  neither  of  whom  had  an  especial 
personal  grievance  to  inspire  him.  They  organized 
as  many  as  1,000  negroes  in  Henrico  county,  arming 
them  with  scythes  and  knives,  and  marched  toward 
the  city  during  the  night.  Forced  to  halt  by  a  stream 
swollen  and  impassable  from  a  recent  storm,  they  dis 
banded,  expecting  to  renew  the  attempt  on  the  follow 
ing  night.  .  .  .  Their  plot  was  disclosed  by  a  slave 
Pharaoh,  who  had  escaped  from  them  and  aroused 
the  citizens  of  Richmond  before  the  attack  could  be 
made.  A  reward  of  $300  .was  offered  for  the  leaders, 
Gabriel  and  Jack.  They  were  caught  and  executed, 
but  a  large  number  of  the  conspirators  were  mercifully 
acquitted  or  the  charges  against  them  were  dismissed 
on  account  of  lack  of  evidence.  This  plot  resulted  in 
the  institution  of  a  public  guard  for  the  city,  of  68 
persons  under  a  captain  and  other  officers."' 

*  Ballagh,  Slavery  in  Virginia,  92. 


EFFORT  FOR  FREEDOM  AND  CULTURE  93 

62.  Denmark  Vesey. — Two  of  the  insurrections  of 
Negroes  deserve  greater  consideration  than  the  others, 
one  because  of  the  ambitiousness  of  its  plan  and  the 
other  because  of  its  actual  achievement.     The  first 
was  conceived  by  Denmark  Vesey.     This  man  was 
probably  born  in  Saint  Thomas,  West  Indies,  in  1767; 
but  the  first  fourteen  years  of  his  life  are  a  blank.    He 
is  first  seen  in  1781  as  one  of  three  hundred  and  ninety 
Negroes   being   transported   to   Santo   Domingo   on 
board  a  vessel  commanded  by  one  Captain  Vesey. 
He  did  not  remain  there,  however,  being  subsequently 
taken  by  Captain  Vesey  to  Charleston,  S.  C.     For 
nearly  twenty  years  he  was  the  faithful  servant  of  this 
man,  who  in  course  of  time  retired  from  his  iniquitous 
profession.     In  1800,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  by 
winning  a  prize  in  a  lottery  Denmark  Vesey  found 
himself  in  possession  of  $1,500.     Of  this  amount  he 
paid  $600  for  his  liberty.     He  worked  at  his  trade, 
carpentry,  amassed  some  wealth,  and  won  general 
esteem.    He  was  fluent  in  French  as  well  as  English, 
and  being  gifted  with  remarkable  personal  magnetism, 
by  his  intelligence  and  sagacity  he  inspired  among  the 
slaves  of  the  city  a  respect  that  amounted  almost  to 
veneration.    He  became  the  father  of  several  children, 
but  no  one  of  these  could  he  call  his  own,  as  under 
the  slave  code  a  child  followed  the  condition  of  the 
mother.     In  course  of  time  Vesey  conceived  a  plan 


94     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

that  contemplated  nothing  less  than  the  total  annihila 
tion  of  the  white  population  of  Charleston.  For  years 
he  sowed  among  his  brethren  the  seeds  of  discontent, 
and  such  was  his  discreetness  that  although  he  played 
in  every  possible  way  upon  the  superstitions  of  the 
Negroes,  and  interpreted  any  public  event  as  pointing 
to  liberty,  at  no  time  did  he  come  under  suspicion.  At 
length  the  time  for  action  came.  Vesey  joined  to  him 
self  five  associates,  Peter  Poyas,  Rolla  Bennett,  Ned 
Bennett,  Monday  Gell,  and  Gullah  Jack.  Aided  by 
these  men  he  brought  into  his  plan  thousands  of  Ne 
groes  in  the  city  of  Charleston  and  in  the  outlying 
districts,  upon  whom  all  the  while  the  greatest  secrecy 
and  regular  attention  to  daily  tasks  were  enjoined. 
He  finally  selected  the  midnight  of  Sunday,  July  22, 
1822,  as  the  time  for  his  attack  upon  the  city,  Sunday 
because  on  that  day  many  Negroes  from  the  planta 
tions  were  in  Charleston,  and  July  because  in  mid 
summer  many  of  the  white  people  were  away  at  the 
summer  resorts.  Of  one  class  of  slaves  he  had  a 
peculiar  distrust.  "Take  care,"  said  he,  "and  don't 
mention  the  plan  to  those  waiting  men  who  receive 
presents  of  old  coats,  etc.,  from  their  masters,  or 
they'll  betray  us."  That  his  suspicions  were  justified 
was  abundantly  proved  by  the  sequel.  Late  in  May 
one  of  those  very  "waiting  men"  endeavored  to  in 
form  against  him;  but  so  insufficient  was  the  knowl- 


EFFORT  FOR  FREEDOM  AND  CULTURE  95 

edge  of  this  man  that  Peter  Poyas  and  Mingo  Harth, 
one  of  the  minor  leaders,  who  had  been  arrested,  were 
released.  Ned  Bennett,  who  also  came  under  sus 
picion,  committed  the  daring  deed  of  voluntarily 
going  before  the  authorities  with  the  request  to  be 
examined,  outwitting  them  by  his  coolness  and  throw 
ing  the  city  into  greater  tumult  than  ever.  The 
original  plan  was  now  hastened  by  four  weeks,  Sun 
day,  June  16,  being  the  new  date.  Again  in  a  few 
days  it  was  divulged  by  a  " waiting  man,"  who  in 
this  instance  had  more  accurate  knowledge  than  the 
first  informant.  The  attempt  to  carry  out  the  plan 
was  easily  suppressed,  and  the  leaders  were  tried 
before  a  special  court  in  which  appeared  Robert  Y. 
Hayne,  then  just  rising  into  great  distinction.  Vesey 
conducted  his  case  with  great  skill,  but  he  was  finally 
condemned  to  death.  With  Spartan  courage  Peter 
Poyas  said  to  his  associates,  "Do  not  open  your  lips! 
Die  silent  as  you  shall  see  me  die."  In  all,  thirty-five 
men  were  executed  and  thirty-seven  banished.  Thus 
closed  the  insurrection  that  for  the  magnitude  of  its 
plan,  the  care  with  which  it  was  matured,  and  the  faith 
fulness  of  the  leaders  to  one  another,  was  never  equalled 
by  a  similar  attempt  for  freedom  in  the  United  States.* 
63.  Nat  Turner. — The  other  important  insurrection 
was  that  of  Nat  Turner,  a  religious  enthusiast  and  the 

*  See  Grimke",  the  main  source  for  the  paragraph. 


96     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

type  of  the  emotional  insurrectionist  as  Vesey  was  of 
the  intellectual.  This  man  was  born  in  1800  in  South 
ampton  County,  Virginia.  He  was  unusually  pre 
cocious,  learning  to  read  with  such  rapidity  that  he 
came  to  be  regarded  as  a  prodigy.  From  his  childhood 
he  believed  that  he  was  divinely  chosen  for  some 
great  mission,  claiming  to  hear  voices  and  to  see 
visions,  among  others  a  vision  of  white  and  black 
spirits  in  battle.  In  course  of  time  he  became  con 
vinced  that  his  mission  was  to  deliver  his  people. 
An  eclipse  in  February,  1831,  was  accepted  as  the  sign 
for  which  he  had  been  waiting;  but  nothing  was  done 
until  after  a  peculiar  appearance  of  the  sun  on  Au 
gust  1 3th.  With  four  friends,  Sam  Edwards,  Henry 
Porter,  Nelson  Williams,  and  Hark  Travis,  he  set 
about  the  work,  being  joined  very  soon  by  a  gigantic 
and  athletic  Negro  named  Will.  The  insurrectionists 
ultimately  numbered  fifty  or  sixty.  Their  weapons 
were  most  indiscriminate,  knives  and  axes  as  well  as 
guns.  On  Sunday  night,  August  21,  near  Cross  Keys, 
Turner  and  his  associates  began  their  work  by  killing 
five  members  of  his  master's  family.  Throughout 
the  night  they  went  on  with  the  work,  killing  any 
white  person  in  the  neighborhood.  Next  morning  they 
killed  all  the  pupils  in  a  schoolhouse.  In  all,  fifty- 
seven  white  people  were  killed;  others  would  have 
died  if  their  slaves  had  not  defended  them.  By  noon 


EFFORT  FOR  FREEDOM  AND  CULTURE  97 

the  news  had  spread.  United  States  troops  from 
Fortress  Monroe  came  to  the  scene  of  action;  also  the 
militia  from  various  counties  in  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina.  The  insurrectionists  were  hunted  like  wild 
beasts.  After  Turner  had  succeeded  in  concealing 
himself  for  six  weeks,  he  was  finally  discovered,  tried, 
convicted,  and  hanged,  as  were  sixteen  of  his  as 
sociates.  As  he  predicted,  the  day  of  his  death  was 
one  of  terrible  thunder  and  lightning.  The  insurrec 
tion  naturally  created  the  wildest  fear  and  excitement 
throughout  the  South.  Its  effects  upon  legislation 
were  immediate,  the  slave  codes  being  made  more 
harsh.* 

64.  The  Amistad  Incident. — Once  while  one  hun 
dred  and  thirty-five  slaves  were  being  taken  from 
Virginia  to  New  Orleans,  Madison  Washington,  one 
of  the  number,  organized  a  rebellion  and  took  posses 
sion  of  the  vessel,  carrying  it  to  Nassau,  an  English 
port,  where  the  authorities  refused  to  surrender  the 
Negroes.  An  incident  very  similar  to  this,  but  more 
famous  and  more  important  because  of  its  legal  con 
sequences,  was  that  of  the  Spanish  slave  schooner, 
L' Amistad,  bound  in  1839  for  Puerto  Principe,  Cuba. 
The  fifty-four  slaves  on  board  were  just  from  Africa, 

*  The  exhaustive  study  of  Nat  Turner  is  a  Johns  Hopkins  disserta 
tion,  Drewry's  The_  Southampton  Insurrection.  It  is  a  pity  that  a 
work  that  brings  together  so  many  facts  should  be  marred  by  a  par 
tisan  tone. 


98     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

where  they  had  been  kidnapped.  Under  the  lead  of 
one  of  their  number,  Joseph  Cinquez,  an  African 
prince  who  had  become  disgusted  at  the  cruel  treat 
ment  accorded  him  and  his  companions,  they  revolted 
and  took  possession  of  the  vessel.  They  killed  two  of 
the  crew,  most  of  the  others  escaping.  They  then 
commanded  their  owners,  two  white  men  whose  lives 
they  had  spared,  to  steer  them  back  to  Africa.  These 
men  made  a  pretense  of  so  doing,  but  really  steered 
north.  After  considerable  wandering  the  vessel  was 
captured  off  Long  Island  by  the  United  States  brig 
Washington,  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant  Ged- 
ney,  and  taken  into  the  harbor  of  New  London,  Conn. 
The  Negroes  were  bound  over  to  await  trial  as  pirates. 
The  Spanish  minister,  Calderon,  demanded  that  the 
Negroes  be  surrendered  as  "  property  rescued  from 
pirates,"  and  President  Van  Buren  was  disposed  to 
yield  to  the  demand  in  accordance  with  a  treaty  with 
Spain.  The  suggestion,  however,  met  with  the  most 
violent  opposition  from  the  anti-slavery  element.  The 
trial  lasted  for  some  months,  and  in  this  time  friends 
taught  the  Africans  to  read  so  that  they  could  tell 
their  story  without  the  aid  of  an  interpreter.  The 
United  States  Circuit  Court  finally  decided  that  in 
asmuch  as  the  international  slave-trade  was  illegal 
even  by  Spanish  law,  the  Negroes  were  free  men  and 
had  been  justified  in  obtaining  their  liberty  by  force. 


EFFORT  FOR  FREEDOM  AND  CULTURE  99 

The  decision  was  sustained  in  March,  1841,  by  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court,  before  which  John 
Quincy  Adams  appeared  in  behalf  of  the  Negroes. 
Lewis  Tappan,  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  New  York 
Anti-Slavery  Society,  now  raised  among  friends  of  the 
cause  money  for  the  transportation  of  the  Negroes 
back  to  Africa.  In  the  company  of  missionaries  they 
were  sent  to  Sierra  Leone  whence  Great  Britain  had 
them  taken  to  their  own  homes. 

65.  Story  of  a  Representative  Negro. — Perhaps  no 
case  that  could  be  cited  better  illustrates  the  strivings 
of  the  quiet,  thrifty,  conservative  Negro  under  the 
system  of  slavery  than  that  of  Lunsford  Lane.  This 
man  was  a  slave  belonging  to  a  citizen  of  Raleigh, 
N.  C.,  and  grew  up  before  the  era  of  unusual  harshness 
to  slaves  which  came  after  the  Nat  Turner  insurrection 
of  1831.  At  an  early  age  he  learned  to  read  and  write, 
and  he  gathered  much  general  information  from  the 
conversation  of  his  master's  guests  and  from  the 
political  speeches  of  Calhoun  and  other  statesmen. 
He  once  heard  a  distinguished  minister  say,  "It  is 
impossible  to  enslave  an  intelligent  people;"  and  he 
never  forgot  these  words.  Earnestly  desirous  of  his 
freedom,  he  carefully  hoarded  the  fees  given  him  by 
friends  of  his  master,  and  by  the  time  he  had  grown  to 
manhood  he  had  saved  several  hundred  dollars.  A 
part  of  this  money  Lane  lost  in  bad  investments,  and 


loo    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

some  he  spent  in  special  care  for  his  wife,  the  slave  of 
another  master,  one  Mr.  Smith.  By  his  father  he 
had  been  taught  the  secret  of  making  a  superior  kind 
of  smoking  tobacco,  and  he  now  began  to  manufacture 
the  product  for  market,  hiring  his  time  from  his 
master  for  from  $100  to  $120  a  year.  The  master 
dying  after  a  few  years,  he  undertook  to  purchase  his 
freedom  from  his  mistress,  the  price  agreed  upon  being 
$1,000.  As  a  slave,  however,  he  could  not  make  a 
contract;  hence  he  entrusted  the  matter  to  his  wife's 
master.  Smith,  after  making  the  purchase,  asked 
court's  leave  to  emancipate  Lane.  By  law,  however, 
a  slave  could  be  freed  for  meritorious  service  only. 
The  best  thing  then  that  Smith  could  do  was  to  take 
Lane  with  him  to  New  York  on  his  next  business  trip, 
and  have  the  freedom  papers  issued  there.  After  this 
process  Lane  returned  to  Raleigh,  where  his  business 
expanded  generally,  as  among  other  things  he  manu 
factured  pipes  and  kept  a  store.  He  now  undertook 
to  buy  his  wife  and  six  children.  Smith  insisted  on 
notes  to  the  amount  of  $2,500,  although  eight  years 
before  he  had  bought  the  wife  and  two  children  for 
only  $560.  All  this  time  Lane  was  very  modest  in  his 
attitude  toward  the  white  people,  dressing  as  poorly 
as  when  a  slave,  and  doing  or  saying  nothing  that 
could  cause  him  to  be  considered  an  agitator.  All  the 
same  there  were  those  who  were  jealous  of  his  pros- 


EFFORT  FOR  FREEDOM  A1W  .CULTU.RE         101 

perity,  and  these  called  to  mind  an  almost  forgotten 
act  that  forbade  free  Negroes  from  other  states  to 
come  to  North  Carolina.  Lane  was  forced  to  leave. 
He  returned  after  a  short  while,  however,  to  straighten 
up  his  business.  He  had  paid  Smith  $560  in  cash, 
and  had  taken  one  of  his  boys  to  New  York.  He  gave 
his  house  and  lot  for  $500,  undertaking  to  pay  in  cash 
the  balance  of  $1,440.  By  lecturing  in  the  North, 
within  one  year  he  raised  the  amount  he  wished. 
Lane  now  asked  of  the  governor  of  North  Carolina 
permission  to  return  to  the  state.  The  governor  re 
plied  that  he  had  no  authority  to  grant  such  permis 
sion,  but  that  under  the  law  he  thought  it  would  be 
all  right  for  Lane  to  return,  provided  he  did  not  remain 
longer  than  twenty  days.  Lane  got  back  to  Raleigh 
Saturday,  April  23,  1842.  He  spent  Sunday  with  his 
family,  and  on  Monday  went  to  Smith's  store  to  finish 
up  his  business.  He  was  arrested  and  accused  of 
"  delivering  abolition  lectures  in  the  State  of  Massa 
chusetts."  In  court  he  recounted  with  simple  pathos 
the  whole  story  of  his  life,  and  as  the  matter  was 
clearly  outside  of  the  jurisdiction  of  a  North  Carolina 
court,  the  case  was  dismissed.  The  court  house  was 
surrounded  by  a  mob,  however,  Lane's  trunk  was 
searched  for  abolition  literature,  and  he  himself  was 
subjected  to  other  indignities.  He  was  put  in  jail 
for  safe  keeping,  and  spent  the  night  at  the  home  of 


102     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

an  honored  citizen.  Early  the  next  morning,  however, 
he  was  tarred  and  feathered.  The  soldiery  came  at 
last  to  his  protection,  and  the  next  day  he  set  out  with 
his  family  for  Philadelphia.  Several  friends  now  as 
sisted  him,  giving  him  food  for  the  journey  and  ar 
ranging  to  have  him  take  the  train  on  the  edge  of  the 
town  in  order  to  avoid  a  mob  at  the  station.  Lane's 
later  life  was  spent  in  Boston,  Oberlin,  and  Worcester. 
He  had  some  success  in  selling  a  medicine  which  he 
made,  and  he  was  active  in  the  abolition  movement 
until  his  death.* 

66.  Free  Negroes. — A  matter  frequently  lost  sight 
of  in  the  consideration  of  the  larger  aspects  of  slavery 
is  that  of  the  free  person  of  color.  Free  Negroes  were 
much  more  numerous  than  is  sometimes  thought,  and 
contributed  a  corresponding  influence  to  society  as  a 
whole.  They  formed  really  one-ninth  of  the  total 
Negro  population  of  the  country,  there  being  in  1860, 
487,970  free  persons  to  3,953,760  slaves.  Except  in 
such  centers  as  New  Orleans  and  Charleston,  most 
of  these  people  were  looked  upon  as  forming  a  vicious 
and  indolent  element,  from  which  society  had  more 
to  fear  than  from  any  other  class.  All  sorts  of  re 
strictive  laws  were  enacted;  but  these  were  not  gen 
erally  enforced,  and  over  half  of  the  free  Negroes  in 
the  country  resided  in  the  South.  Although  they 
*  Bassett,  Anti-Slavery  Leaders,  60-74. 


EFFORT  FOR  FREEDOM  AND  CULTURE         103 

labored  under  many  disabilities,  they  engaged  in  al 
most  every  occupation  that  Negroes  pursue  to-day. 
A  visitor  from  England  received  the  impression  in 
Washington  and  other  cities  that  they  enjoyed  a 
special  monopoly  of  the  barber's  trade.  Their  eco 
nomic  life  left  most  to  be  desired  in  the  nonslavehold- 
ing  states.  Even  here,  however,  some  found  a  place  in 
domestic  service,  and  a  few  made  a  beginning  in  the 
professions.  "Their  general  status,  taken  as  a  whole, 
was  better  in  Louisiana  than  anywhere  else  in  the 
country,  North  or  South.  In  1836,  in  the  city  of  New 
Orleans,  855  free  people  of  color  paid  taxes  on  prop 
erty  assessed  at  $2,462,470,  and  owned  620  slaves.  In 
1860  the  property  holdings  of  the  same  class  for  the 
state  at  large  were  estimated  at  from  $13,000,000  to 
$15,000,000.  There  were  free  colored  planters  in 
Louisiana  whose  property  in  land  and  slaves  was 
valued  at  from  $25,000  to  $150,000.  Many  of 
these  people  enjoyed  educational  advantages  and 
lived  amidst  refined  surroundings  equal  to  any 
possessed  by  their  white  neighbors.  .  .  .  What  was 
true  of  conditions  in  New  Orleans  and  Louisiana 
was  also  true  of  Baltimore,  Charleston,  Mobile,  and 
other  less  important '  free  negro '  centers  in  the  South, 
and  of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  other  places  in 
the  North."  * 

*  Stone,  The  Negro  in  the  South. 


104    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

67.  Education  before  the  Civil  War.— The  first 
schools  for  Negroes  were  private  ones,  such  as  every 
where  preceded  public  schools.  In  1704  one  such 
school  was  opened  in  New  York,  in  1770  one  in  Phila 
delphia,  and  in  1798  one  in  Boston.*  In  certain  places 
in  what  is  now  the  Middle  West  private  schools  be 
came  largely  supported  by  manumitted  Negroes.  In 
the  South  efforts  were  of  course  more  sporadic;  but 
deserving  of  attention  is  the  education  which  Negroes 
received  through  private  or  clandestine  sources.  More 
than  one  slave  learned  the  alphabet  while  entertaining 
the  son  of  his  master.  As  early  as  1764  the  editor  of  a 
paper  in  Williamsburg,  Va.,  had  established  a  school 
for  Negroes;  f  and  about  1800  a  Negro,  the  Rev.  John 
Chavis,  passed  "  through  a  regular  course  of  academic 
studies"  at  Washington  Academy,  now  Washington 
and  Lee  University.!  In  Charleston  for  a  long  time 
before  the  Civil  War  free  Negroes  could  attend  schools 
especially  designed  for  their  benefit  and  kept  by  white 
people  or  other  Negroes.  -  The  course  of  study  not  in 
frequently  embraced  such  subjects  as  physiology,  ele 
mentary  physics,  and  plane  geometry.  After  John 
Brown's  raid  the  order  went  forth  that  no  longer 
should  any  Negro  teach  Negroes.  This  resulted 

*  R.  R.  Wright,  Jr.,  Self-Help  in  Negro  Education. 
f  William  and  Mary  College  Quarterly,  VI,  80. 
}  Ballagh,  Slavery  in  Virginia,  no. 


EFFORT  FOR  FREEDOM  AND  CULTURE         105 

merely  in  a  white  person's  being  brought  to  sit  in  the 
classroom.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  how 
ever,  Negro  schools  were  closed  altogether.  In  the 
Northern  states  two  institutions  for  the  higher  educa 
tion  of  the  Negro  were  established  before  the  Civil 
War,  Lincoln  University  in  Pennsylvania  in  1854  and 
Wilberforce  in  Ohio  in  1856.  Oberlin,  moreover,  was 
founded  in  1833.  One  year  later  the  trustees  took  the 
advanced  ground  of  admitting  Negro  men  and  women 
on  equal  terms  with  white  students.  Though  before 
this  individual  Negroes  had  found  their  way  into 
Northern  institutions,  it  was  here  at  Oberlin  that  they 
first  received  a  real  welcome.  In  1865  about  one- third 
of  the  students  were  of  the  Negro  race,  and  Oberlin 
still  leads  Northern  colleges  in  the  number  of  Negro 
graduates,  especially  women. 

68.  The  Negro  in  the  Public  Eye.— In  spite  of  the 
handicaps  under  which  they  labored,  Negroes  took  an 
active  part  in  the  agitation  preceding  the  Civil  War. 
Mention  has  already  been  made  of  David  Walker's 
Appeal.  Samuel  Ringgold  Ward,  author  of  Auto 
biography  of  a  Fugitive  Negro,  was  only  one  of  several 
prominent  Negro  lecturers;  and,  as  has  been  shown, 
one  Negro  woman,  Harriet  Tubman,  took  an  un 
usually  prominent  part  in  the  work  of  the  Under 
ground  Railroad.  Anything  that  indicated  intel 
lectual  and  moral  capacity  on  the  part  of  the  Negro 


io6    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

was  eagerly  seized  upon  by  the  opponents  of  slavery. 
Within  four  years  the  poems  of  Phillis  Wheatley  ran 
through  three  new  editions;  Elizabeth  Greenfield,  of 
Philadelphia,  sang  before  the  royalty  of  Europe;  and 
Ira  Aldridge  achieved  such  success  as  a  great  tragedian 
that  he  was  decorated  by  the  emperors  of  Austria  and 
Russia.  The  African  Methodist  Church  was  already 
demonstrating  that  the  Negro  could  do  something 
in  organization;  and  everywhere  individuals,  by  hardy 
effort,  were  showing  forth  the  possibilities  of  the 
former  slave  in  the  estate  of  freedom. 

69.  Sojourner  Truth. — Two  Negroes,  because  of 
their  upusual  gifts,  stood  out  with  great  prominence 
in  the  agitation.  These  were  Sojourner  Truth  and 
Frederick  Douglass.  Sojourner  Truth  was  born  of 
slave  parents  about  1798  in  Ulster  County,  New 
York.  She  remembered  vividly  in  later  years  the 
cold,  wet  cellar-room  in  which  slept  the  slaves  of  the 
family  to  which  she  belonged,  and  where  she  was 
taught  by  her  mother  to  repeat  the  Lord's  Prayer  and 
to  trust  in  God  at  all  times.  When  in  the  course 
of  gradual  emancipation  in  New  York  she  became 
legally  free  in  1827,  her  master  refused  to  comply  with 
the  law.  She  left,  but  was  pursued  and  found.  Rather 
than  have  her  go  back,  a  friend  paid  for  her  services 
for  the  rest  of  the  year.  Then  came  an  evening  when, 
searching  for  one  of  her  children  that  had  been  stolen 


EFFORT  FOR  FREEDOM  AND  CULTURE         107 

and  sold,  she  found  herself  a  homeless  wanderer.  A 
Quaker  family  gave  her  lodging  for  the  night.  Subse 
quently  she  went  to  New  York  City,  joined  a  Metho 
dist  church,  and  worked  hard  to  improve  her  condition. 
Later,  having  decided  to  leave  New  York  for  a  lectur 
ing  tour  through  the  East,  she  made  a  small  bundle  of 
her  belongings  and  informed  a  friend  that  her  name 
was  no  longer  Isabella  but  Sojourner.  She  went  on 
her  way,  lecturing  to  people  wherever  she  found  them 
assembled  and  being  entertained  in  many  aristocratic 
homes.  She  was  entirely  untaught  in  the  schools,  but 
she  was  witty,  original,  and  always  suggestive.  By 
her  tact  and  her  gift  of  song  she  kept  down  ridicule, 
and  by  her  fervor  and  faith  she  won  many  friends  for 
the  anti-slavery  cause.  As  to  her  name  she  said: 
"And  the  Lord  gave  me  Sojourner  because  I  was  to 
travel  up  an'  down  the  land  showin'  the  people  their 
sins  an'  bein'  a  sign  unto  them.  Afterwards  I  told 
the  Lord  I  wanted  another  name,  'cause  everybody 
else  had  two  names,  an'  the  Lord  gave  me  Truth, 
because  I  was  to  declare  the  truth  to  the  people."  * 

70.  Frederick  Douglass. — Douglass  was  born  in 
1817  and  lived  for  ten  years  as  a  slave  upon  a  Mary 
land  plantation.  Then  he  was  bought  by  a  Baltimore 
shipbuilder.  He  learned  to  read,  and,  being  attracted 
to  The  Lady  of  the  Lake,  when  he  escaped  in  1838  and 

*  See  Scruggs,  48-5  7. 


loS    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NECKO 

went  disguised  as  a  sailor  to  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  he 
adopted  the  name  Douglas  (spelling  it  with  two  s's 
however).  He  lived  for  several  years  in  New  Bedford, 
being  assisted  by  Garrison  in  his  efforts  for  an  educa 
tion.  In  1841,  at  an  anti-slavery  convention  in  Nan- 
tucket,  he  exhibited  such  intelligence  and  showed 
himself  the  possessor  of  such  a  remarkable  voice  that 
he  was  made  the  agent  of  the  Massachusetts  Anti- 
Slavery  Society.  He  now  lectured  extensively  in  Eng 
land  and  the  United  States,  and  English  friends 
raised  £150  to  enable  him  regularly  to  purchase  his 
freedom.  For  a  time  he  published  a  paper  in  Roches 
ter.  Later  in  life  he  became  Recorder  of  Deeds  in  the 
District  of  Columbia,  and  then  Minister  to  Hayti. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  in  1893  Douglass  had  won  for 
himself  a  place  of  unique  distinction.  Large  of  heart 
and  of  mind,  he  was  interested  in  every  forward  move 
ment  for  his  people;  but  his  charity  also  embraced  all 
men  and  all  races.  His  reputation  was  national,  and 
many  of  his  speeches  are  to-day  found  in  the  standard 
books  on  the  subject  of  oratory. 


CHAPTER  VII 

EMANCIPATION 

71.  Steps  Leading  to  the  Proclamation. — For  a  long 
time  Abraham  Lincoln  as  President  debated  the  ad 
visability  of  issuing  his  proclamation  emancipating 
the  slaves  in  the  Southern  states,  pressure  from  radical 
anti-slavery  sources  all  the  while  being  brought  to 
bear  upon  him.     He  delayed  until  he  was  sure  that 
the  sentiment  of  his  support  was  fully  with  him,  and 
until  he  could  act  with  grace  to  the  Northern  arms. 
After    McClellan's    unsuccessful    campaign    against 
Richmond,  however,  he  felt  that  the  freedom  of  the 
slaves  was  a  military  and  a  moral  necessity  for  its 
effects  upon  both  the  North  and  the  South;  and  Lee's 
defeat  at  An  tie  tarn,  September  17,  1862,  furnished  the 
opportunity  for  which  he  had  been  waiting.    Accord 
ingly  on  September  22nd  he  issued  a  preliminary  dec 
laration  giving  notice  that  on  January  i,  1863,  ne 
would  free  all  slaves  in  the  states  still  in  rebellion,  and 
asserting  as  before  that  the  object  of  the  war  was  the 
preservation  of  the  Union. 

72.  Emancipation    Proclamation. — The  Proclama 
tion  as  finally  issued  January  ist  is  one  of  the  most 

109 


no    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

important  public  documents  in  the  history  of  the 
United  States,  ranking  only  below  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  and  the  Constitution  itself.  Its  full 
text  is  as  follows : — 

Whereas,  on  the  twenty-second  day  of  September, 
in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  sixty-two,  a  proclamation  was  issued  by  the  Presi 
dent  of  the  United  States,  containing  among  other 
things,  the  following,  to-wit: 

That  on  the  first  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-three,  all  persons  held 
as  slaves  within  any  state  or  designated  part  of  a  state,  the 
people  whereof  shall  then  be  in  rebellion  against  the  United 
States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforward,  and  forever  free;  and  the 
executive  government  of  the  United  States,  including  the  mili 
tary  and  naval  authority  thereof,  will  recognize  and  maintain 
the  freedom  of  such  persons,  and  will  do  no  act  or  acts  to  re 
press  such  persons,  or  any  of  them,  in  any  efforts  they  may 
make  for  their  actual  freedom. 

That  the  Executive  will,  on  the  first  day  of  January  afore 
said,  by  proclamation,  designate  the  states  and  parts  of  states, 
if  any,  in  which  the  people  thereof  shall  then  be  in  rebellion 
against  the  United  States;  and  the  fact  that  any  state,  or  the 
people  thereof,  shall  on  that  day  be  in  good  faith  represented 
in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  by  members  chosen  thereto 
at  elections  wherein  a  majority  of  the  qualified  voters  of  such 
state  shall  have  participated,  shall,  in  the  absence  of  strong 
countervailing  testimony,  be  deemed  conclusive  evidence  that 
such  state,  and  the  people  thereof,  are  not  then  in  rebellion 
against  the  United  States. 

Now,  therefore,  I,  Abraham  Lincoln,  President  of 
the  United  States,  by  virtue  of  the  power  in  me  vested 


EMANCIPATION  III 

as  Commander-in- Chief  of  the  Army  and  Navy  of 
the  United  States,  in  time  of  actual  armed  rebellion 
against  the  authority  and  government  of  the  United 
States,  and  as  a  fit  and  necessary  war  measure  for 
suppressing  said  rebellion,  do  on  this  first  day  of  Jan 
uary,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  sixty-three,  and  in  accordance  with  my 
purpose  so  to  do,  publicly  proclaimed  for  the  full 
period  of  one  hundred  days  from  the  date  first  above 
mentioned,  order  and  designate  as  the  states  and  parts 
of  states  wherein  the  people  thereof  respectively  on  this 
day  are  in  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  the 
following  to-wit: 

Arkansas,  Texas,  Louisiana  (except  the  parishes  of 
St.  Bernard,  Plaquemine,  Jefferson,  St.  John,  St. 
Charles,  St.  James,  Ascension,  Assumption,  Terre 
Bonne,  Lafourche,  St.  Marie,  St.  Martin,  and  Orleans, 
including  the  city  of  New  Orleans),  Mississippi,  Ala 
bama,  Florida,  Georgia,  South  Carolina,  North  Caro 
lina,  and  Virginia  (except  the  forty-eight  counties 
designated  as  West  Virginia,  and  also  the  counties  of 
Berkeley,  Accomac,  Northampton,  Elizabeth  City, 
York,  Princess  Anne,  and  Norfolk,  including  the  cities 
of  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth),  and  which  excepted 
parts  are,  for  the  present,  left  precisely  as  if  this 
proclamation  were  not  issued. 

And  by  virtue  of  the  power  and  for  the  purpose 
aforesaid,  I  do  order  and  declare  that  all  persons  held 
as  slaves  within  said  designated  states  and  parts  of 
states  are  and  henceforth  shall  be  free,  and  that  the 
executive  government  of  the  United  States,  including 


112    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

the  military  and  naval  authorities  thereof,  will  recog 
nize  and  maintain  the  freedom  of  said  persons. 

And  I  hereby  enjoin  upon  the  people  so  declared  to 
be  free  to  abstain  from  all  violence,  unless  in  necessary 
self-defense;  and  I  recommend  to  them  that,  in  all 
cases  when  allowed,  they  labor  faithfully  for  reason 
able  wages. 

And  I  further  declare  and  make  known  that  such 
persons,  of  suitable  condition,  will  be  received  into 
the  armed  service  of  the  United  States  to  garrison 
forts,  positions,  stations,  and  other  places,  and  to 
man  vessels  of  all  sorts  in  said  service. 

And  upon  this  act,  sincerely  believed  to  be  an  act  of 
justice,  warranted  by  the  Constitution  upon  military 
necessity,  I  invoke  the  considerate  judgment  of  man 
kind,  and  the  gracious  favor  of  Almighty  God. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  name, 
and  caused  the  seal  of  the  United  States  to  be  affixed. 

Done  at  the  City  of  Washington,  this  first  day  of 
January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  sixty- three,  and  of  the  independence  of 
the  United  States  the  eighty-seventh. 

By  the  President, 

ABRAHAM  LINCOLN 
WILLIAM  H.  SEWARD, 

Secretary  of  State. 

r • 

73.  Effects  of  the  Proclamation. — It  is  to  be  ob 
served  that  the  Proclamation  was  merely  a  war 
measure  resting  on  the  constitutional  power  of  the 
President.  Its  effects  on  the  legal  status  of  the  slaves 


EMANCIPATION  113 

gave  rise  to  much  discussion;  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
it  did  not  apply  to  what  is  now  West  Virginia,  to  seven 
counties  in  Virginia,  and  to  thirteen  parishes  in 
Louisiana,  which  districts  had  already  come  under 
federal  jurisdiction.  All  questions  raised  by  the 
measure,  however,  were  finally  settled  by  the  Thir 
teenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  and  as  a 
matter  of  fact  freedom  actually  followed  the  progress 
of  the  American  arms  from  1863  to  1865.  The  moral 
effect  of  the  Proclamation  was  such  as  Lincoln  had 
foreseen,  and  the  more  radical  elements  in  the  North 
that  had  criticised  his  delay  now  rallied  to  his  support. 
74.  The  Negro  in  the  Civil  War. — Negroes  were 
used  by  the  Confederates  long  before  they  were  used 
by  the  Union  forces.  Even  before  the  war  actually 
began  they  were  employed  in  making  redoubts  and  in 
other  rough  work.  Before  the  war  was  over,  plans 
for  the  formation  of  Negro  regiments  in  the  Con 
federate  armies  were  seriously  proposed,  and  General 
Robert  E.  Lee  was  one  of  the  strongest  advocates  of 
such  a  policy.  All  such  effort  was  of  course  at  variance 
with  the  main  influences  of  the  period,  and  the  Negro 
is  naturally  remembered  most  quickly  in  connection 
with  the  Union  armies.  In  May,  1861,  while  in  com 
mand  at  Fortress  Monroe,  Major-General  Benjamin 
F.  Butler  came  into  prominence  by  receiving  fugitive 
slaves  within  his  lines.  He  put  these  men  to  work 


114    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

and  justified  their  retention  on  the  ground  that,  being 
of  service  to  the  enemy  for  purposes  of  war,  they  were 
like  guns,  powder,  etc.,  "contraband  of  war,"  and 
could  not  be  reclaimed,  On  August  3oth  of  this  same 
year  Major-General  John  C.  Fremont,  in  command 
in  Missouri,  placed  the  state  under  martial  law  and 
declared  the  slaves  there  emancipated.  The  adminis 
tration  was  embarrassed,  Fremont's  order  was  an 
nulled,  and  he  was  relieved  of  his  command.  On 
May  9,  1862,  Major- General  David  Hunter,  in  charge 
of  the  Department  of  the  South  (that  is,  South  Caro 
lina,  Georgia,  and  Florida)  issued  his  famous  order 
freeing  the  slaves  in  his  department,  and  thus  brought 
to  general  attention  the  matter  of  the  employment  of 
Negro  soldiers  in  the  Union  armies.  The  Confederate 
government  outlawed  Hunter,  Lincoln  annulled  his 
order,  and  the  grace  of  the  nation  was  again  saved ;  but 
in  the  meantime  a  new  situation  had  arisen.  While 
Brigadier- General  John  W.  Phelps  was  taking  part  in 
the  expedition  against  New  Orleans,  a  large  sugar- 
planter  near  the  city,  disgusted  with  federal  inter 
ference  with  affairs  on  his  plantation,  drove  all  the 
slaves  away,  telling  them  to  go  to  their  friends,  the 
Yankees.  The  Negroes  came  to  Phelps  in  great  num 
bers,  and  he  attempted  to  organize  them  into  troops. 
Accordingly  he  too  was  outlawed  by  the  Confederates, 
and  his  act  was  disavowed  by  the  Union,  that  was  not 


EMANCIPATION  115 

ready  to  take  this  step.  It  was  not  until  a  great  many 
men  had  been  killed,  and  until  the  Emancipation 
Proclamation  had  changed  the  status  of  the  Negro, 
that  steps  were  really  taken  by  the  Union  for  his  em 
ployment  as  a  soldier.  Opinion  in  his  favor  gained 
force  after  the  Draft  Riot  in  New  York,  when  Negroes 
in  the  city  were  persecuted  by  the  enemies  of  con 
scription.  Soon  a  distinct  bureau  was  established  in 
Washington  for  the  recording  of  all  matters  pertaining 
to  Negro  troops,  a  board  was  organized  for  the  exam 
ination  of  candidates,  and  recruiting  stations  were  set 
up  in  Maryland,  Missouri,  and  Tennessee.  By  the 
end  of  1864  about  200,000  Negroes  had  been  enrolled 
in  the  army.  The  Confederates  were  furious  when 
they  had  to  meet  black  men  on  equal  footing,  and 
refused  to  exchange  Negro  soldiers  for  white  men. 
How  such  action  was  met  by  Stanton,  Secretary  of 
War,  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  when  he  learned 
that  three  Negro  prisoners  had  been  placed  in  close 
confinement,  he  ordered  three  South  Carolina  men  to 
be  treated  likewisej  the  Confederate  leaders  being  in 
formed  of  his  action.;  Such  was  the  general  progress  of 
the  Negro  in  the  armies  of  the  United  States.  Those  Ne 
groes  who  individually  rose  to  distinction  in  the  war,  and 
the  valor  of  the  troops  generally  at  Fort  Wagner,  Peters 
burg,  and  elsewhere,  will  receive  more  detailed  consid 
eration  in  our  chapter  on  "The  Negro  as  a  Soldier." 


II 6    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

75.  Shaw  and  Higginson. — Of  the  commanders  of 
Negro  troops  there  were  two  who  call  for  special  notice. 
In  January,  1863,  Robert  Gould  Shaw,  a  young  Har 
vard  man  in  the  Union  army,  was  offered  the  colonelcy 
of  the  54th  Massachusetts,  the  first  regiment  of  Negro 
troops  raised  in  a  Northern  state.  Although  he  knew 
that  he  would  subject  himself  to  severe  criticism,  he 
accepted.  After  taking  part  in  an  expedition  to 
Florida,  he  was  attacked  by  the  forces  operating 
against  Fort  Wagner,  near  Charleston,  S.  C.,  and  on 
July  1 8,  1863,  he  was  killed  upon  the  parapet  of  the 
fort  while  leading  an  assault.  Thus  died  at  the  age  of 
twenty-six  a  young  man  who  represented  the  fine 
flower  of  New  England  culture,  and  who  should  ever 
be  honored  for  his  noble  faith  and  heroism.  Edmonia 
Lewis,  a  sculptor  of  whose  work  we  shall  have  more  to 
say,  attracted  attention  by  a  bust  she  made  of  him; 
and  Saint-Gaudens  designed  a  monument  which  now 
stands  at  the  head  of  Boston  Common  just  in  front 
of  the  Massachusetts  State  House.  The  other  dis 
tinguished  commander  of  Negro  troops  was  Thomas 
Wentworth  Higginson.  Already  captain  of  a  Massa 
chusetts  regiment  of  volunteers,  this  man  became 
colonel  of  the  first  regiment  of  freed  slaves  raised  in 
the  United  States.  The  ranks  of  this  regiment  in 
cluded  many  men  who  had  been  slaves  on  Pierce  But 
ler's  plantation  on  St.  Simon's  Island,  Georgia.  By  a 


EMANCIPATION  117 

wound  received  in  a  campaign  in  Florida  in  1863 
Colonel  Higginson  was  forced  to  retire  from  the  serv 
ice;  and  after  the  war  and  until  his  death  he  de 
voted  himself  to  literature  and  public  affairs. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ENFRANCHISEMENT 

76.  Difficulties  of  the  Problem. — On  arriving  at  the 
era  of  Reconstruction,  we  come  to  that  period  which 
is  still  the  most  hotly  debated  in  American  history. 
The  enormous  difficulties  of  the  problem  are  hardly 
yet  fully  appreciated.  The  Civil  War  meant  more 
than  the  emancipation  of  four  million  slaves,  with  all 
the  perplexing  questions  that  that  liberation  brought 
with  it;  it  involved  the  overturning  of  the  whole  eco 
nomic  system  of  the  South.  A  stroke  of  the  pen  had 
declared  the  bondmen  free;  but  to  educate  these 
people,  to  train  them  in  citizenship,  and  to  give  them 
a  place  in  the  new  labor  system,  was  all  a  problem  for 
the  wisest  statesmanship  and  the  largest  and  most 
intelligent  patriotism.  The  Southern  man,  whose  for 
tune  was  swept  away,  whose  slaves  were  free,  and 
whose  father,  son,  or  brother  had  died  in  battle,  not 
unnaturally  looked  upon  any  legislation  by  the  North 
as  adding  to  his  cup  of  humiliation.  The  North  on  the 
other  hand  was  quick  to  interpret  any  effort  by  the 
white  South  in  the  readjustment  of  social  and  labor 
conditions  as  evidence  of  a  refusal  to  accept  in  good 

118 


ENFRANCHISEMENT  119 

faith  the  results  of  the  war.  To  increase  the  complica 
tion  and  the  delicacy  of  the  situation  there  were  some 
times  present  personal  or  other  peculiar  elements 
which  seemed  to  contradict  all  the  leading  tendencies 
of  the  period.  Some  Negroes,  for  instance,  personally 
attached  to  their  masters,  were  unwilling  to  accept 
their  freedom ;  and  generally  throughout  the  South  the 
white  people,  who  laid  most  of  their  ills  at  the  door  of 
the  Negro,  resisted  violently  any  considerable  effort 
toward  migration  on  the  part  of  the  former  slaves. 
Such  were  but  some  of  the  things  which  increased  the 
difficulties  of  the  problem  in  this  era  of  shifting  status. 
77.  Reconstruction.  The  War  Amendments. — 
According  to  the  view  of  their  status  maintained  by 
the  Southern  states  at  the  close  of  the  war,  each  state 
was  theoretically  indestructible,  and  the  only  thing 
necessary  for  one  to  resume  its  former  place  in  federal 
councils  was  for  it,  having  laid  down  its  arms,  to  repeal 
all  acts  that  had  looked  toward  disunion.  According 
to  the  view  of  President  Lincoln,  the  act  of  rebellion 
had  been  one  not  of  the  states  themselves,  but  of  cer 
tain  disloyal  persons  who  had  subverted  the  govern 
ment.  Each  state  then  continued  to  exist,  and  the 
problem  presented  was  simply  to  place  the  loyal  ele 
ments  in  control.  As  this  involved  the  use  of  the 
pardoning  power,  the  President  regarded  the  matter 
as  one  for  executive  rather  than  legislative  authority. 


120    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

Opposed  to  this  was  the  opinion  of  Congress  embodied 
in  the  Wade-Davis  act  of  1864,  differing  from  the 
President's  view  in  regarding  the  problem  primarily 
as  a  legislative  one,  in  requiring  the  loyalty  of  a  ma 
jority  of  the  white  voters  of  a  state  as  the  basis  of 
a  reconstructed  government  instead  of  that  of  the 
one- tenth  of  the  qualified  voters  of  1860  advocated  by 
Lincoln,  and  in  exacting  for  the  Negro  the  full  reality 
of  his  freedom  and  making  sure  the  complete  ascend 
ancy  of  the  victorious  republican  party  over  the 
Southern  and  Northern  democrats  who  for  so  many 
years  before  the  war  had  controlled  national  affairs. 
The  leaders  of  this  school  of  opinion  were  Charles 
Sumner,  of  Massachusetts,  in  the  Senate,  and  Thad- 
deus  Stevens,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  the  House.  The 
breach  which  opened  between  the  President  and  Con 
gress  because  of  these  conflicting  views,  but  which 
Lincoln  might  have  closed  by  his  tact,  fell  to  the  lot 
of  President  Johnson,  who,  on  May  29,  1865,  issued  a 
proclamation  of  amnesty  with  the  understanding 
attached  that  those  excluded  from  its  benefits  might 
make  special  application  to  him,  and  who,  within  the 
next  few  months,  while  Congress  was  not  in  session, 
worked  out  generally  his  theory  of  reconstruction.  In 
the  summer  of  1865  conventions  were  held  in  the 
various  Southern  states,  and  in  December  the  Presi 
dent  informed  Congress  that  with  the  exception  of 


ENFRA  NCHISEMENT  1 2 1 

Texas,  whose  convention  did  not  meet  until  the  fol 
lowing  March,  all  the  states  had  been  reconstructed 
and  were  ready  to  resume  their  places  in  Congress. 
Because,  however,  of  certain  legislation  in  South 
Carolina,  Louisiana,  and  Mississippi,  embodied  in 
what  were  known  as  Black  Codes,  Congress  doubted 
whether  the  states  were  acting  in  good  faith.  These 
Black  Codes  were  in  the  nature  of  police  regulations 
ostensibly  designed  to  prevent  disorder  and  pauperism 
among  the  freedmen,  but  were  of  such  a  nature 
as  to  lead  to  the  thought  that  they  were  really  de 
signed  to  curtail  generally  for  the  Negroes  the  benefits 
of  emancipation;  and  there  was  probability  that  other 
states  would  go  quite  as  far  as  those  mentioned  in  the 
passing  of  such  acts.  In  the  meantime  the  Thirteenth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution  had  been  sufficiently 
ratified  and  was  passed  (Dec.  18,  1865),  reading  as 
follows:  " Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude, 
except  as  a  punishment  for  crime  whereof  the  party 
shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  the 
United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  juris 
diction.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this 
article  by  appropriate  legislation."  Furthermore,  in 
March,  1866,  Congress  passed  over  the  President's 
veto  the  first  Civil  Rights  Bill,  guaranteeing  to  the 
freedmen  all  the  ordinary  rights  of  citizenship;  and  it 
enlarged  the  powers  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau,  which 


122     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

had  been  recently  established.  At  this  point  feeling 
in  the  North  was  intensified  by  some  violent  attacks 
on  Negroes  and  white  radicals  in  the  South,  especially 
by  one  such  affair  in  New  Orleans  in  which  about  forty 
men  were  killed  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  wounded. 
When  Congress  met  in  December,  1866,  failing  to 
impeach  President  Johnson,  by  various  measures  it 
limited  his  power,  and  then  established  Negro  suffrage 
in  the  District  of  Columbia  and  the  territories,  and, 
urged  on  by  the  action  of  the  Southern  states  in  reject 
ing  the  proposed  Fourteenth  Amendment,  it  proceeded 
to  divide  the  ten  states  which  had  seceded  into  ten 
military  districts,  as  follows:  (i)  Virginia,  (2)  North 
and  South  Carolina,  (3)  Georgia,  Florida,  and  Ala 
bama,  (4)  Mississippi  and  Arkansas,  (5)  Louisiana 
and  Texas.  Military  law  now  protected  everybody 
in  the  enjoyment  of  the  rights  of  person  and  property, 
and  oversaw  the  registration  and  voting  of  all  men 
without  regard  to  race  or  color.  By  February,  1868, 
conventions  were  in  session  in  every  state  that  had 
seceded.  These  were  made  up  very  largely  of  the 
freedmen,  of  Northern  men  who  had  come  South  since 
the  war  and  who  were  called  in  derision  "  carpet 
baggers,"  and  Southern  men  who  acted  at  variance 
with  the  prevailing  sentiment  of  the  South  and  who 
were  known  as  "scalawags."  Moreover,  secret  organ 
izations,  of  which  the  Union  League  was  the  best  ex- 


ENFRANCHISEMENT  123 

ample,  were  formed  for  marshalling  the  Negro  vote 
for  the  republican  party.  The  Fourteenth  Amend 
ment,  as  finally  passed  by  Congress  (July  28,  1868), 
denied  to  the  states  the  power  to  abridge  the  privileges 
or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  to 
deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property  without 
due  process  of  law;  and  enacted  that  if  a  state  dis 
criminated  against  any  class  of  citizens  in  voting  privi 
leges,  its  representation  in  the  national  Congress  was 
to  be  decreased  proportionately.  The  third  section  of 
the  amendment  excluded  from  all  national  and  state 
offices  (except  under  a  two-thirds  vote  of  Congress)  all 
persons  "who,  having  previously  taken  an  oath  .  .  . 
to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  shall 
have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the 
same,  or  even  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies 
thereof."  At  the  time  when  Grant  came  to  the 
presidency  (1869),  four  states  (Virginia,  Mississippi, 
Texas,  and  Georgia)  had  still  not  accepted  the  new 
settlement.  By  July  15,  1870,  however,  when  Georgia 
was  admitted,  they  had  all  been  forced  to  accept  the 
Fifteenth  Amendment  (passed  March  30,  1870),  which 
sought  to  protect  the  Negro  in  the  right  of  suffrage 
instead  of  giving  to  him  a  guarantee  of  military  pro 
tection.  This  amendment  read :  "  The  right  of  citizens 
of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or 
abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  state,  on 


124    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servi 
tude.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this 
article  by  appropriate  legislation."  The  carpetbag 
governments  were  now  in  full  career,  and  there  set 
in  an  era  of  extravagance,  plunder,  and  increasing 
debt  in  which  for  the  most  part  the  carpetbaggers  and 
the  scalawags  rather  than  the  Negroes  reaped  the 
benefit.  Then  it  was  that  the  KuKlux  Klan  began  to 
terrorize  Negroes  with  a  view  to  preventing  them  from 
exercising  their  political  rights.  In  1875  was  passed 
the  second  Civil  Rights  Act,  which  was  designed  to 
give  Negroes  equality  of  treatment  in  theaters,  rail 
way  cars,  hotels,  etc. ;  but  this  the  Supreme  Court  de 
clared  unconstitutional  in  1883.  Meanwhile  the  with 
drawal  of  the  federal  troops  and  the  wholesale  removal 
of  disabilities  by  Congress  weakened  the  reconstruc 
tion  governments  and  made  possible  democratic  suc 
cess  in  the  South. 

78.  Freedmen's  Bureau. — Such  is  a  bare  outline  of 
political  events  in  the  South  in  the  chaotic  era  suc 
ceeding  the  war.  Some  subjects  prompted  by  this 
review,  however,  are  deserving  of  more  than  passing 
attention.  One  of  these  is  the  Freedmen's  Bureau. 
This  was  not  exactly  a  missionary  organization,  but 
its  efforts  were  largely  philanthropic,  and  it  became 
connected  with  more  distinctively  missionary  enter 
prises.  It  was  created  as  a  charge  of  the  War  Depart- 


ENFRA  N  CHI  SEMEN  T  125 

ment  by  an  act  of  March  3,  1865,  and  was  to  remain 
in  existence  throughout  the  war  and  for  one  year 
thereafter.  Its  powers  were  enlarged,  however,  by 
an  act  of  July  16,  i§66.  "It  was  rendered  necessary 
by  the  presence  within  the  Federal  lines  of  vast  num 
bers  of  Negroes  who  had  escaped  or  had  been  rescued 
from  slavery,  and  of  whom  at  least  a  million  were  at 
the  time  of  the  passing  of  the  act  dependent  for  sup 
port  upon  the  Federal  Government."  *  The  Freed- 
men's  Bureau  was  to  have  the  "  supervision  and  man 
agement  of  all  abandoned  lands,  and  the  control  of  all 
subjects  relating  to  refugees  and  freedmen."  Of 
special  importance  was  the  provision  that  authorized 
the  President  to  appropriate  for  the  use  of  freedmen 
the  confiscated  and  abandoned  lands  within  the 
Southern  states;  each  male  refugee  was  to  be  given 
forty  acres  with  the  guarantee  of  possession  for  three 
years.  The  Bureau's  chief  work  ended  January  i, 
1869;  its  educational  work  was  continued  for  a  year 
and  a  half  longer.  When  it  came  to  an  end,  it  turned 
its  educational  interests  and  much  money  over  to 
the  religious  and  benevolent  societies  which  had  co 
operated  with  it,  especially  to  the  American  Mission 
ary  Association.  Throughout  the  existence  of  the 
Freedmen's  Bureau  its  chief  commissioner  was  Gen. 
O.  0.  Howard.  While  its  principal  officers  were  un- 

*  Nelson's  Encyclopedia,  Article  Freedmen's  Bureau. 


126    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

doubtedly  men  of  noble  purpose,  many  of  the  minor 
officials  were  just  as  undoubtedly  corrupt  and  self- 
seeking.  Altogether  it  established  4,239  schools  in  the 
South  for  Negro  pupils,  and  these  had  9,307  teachers 
and  247,333  students.*  Its  real  achievement  has  been 
thus  ably  summed  up:  " The  greatest  success  of  the 
Freedmen's  Bureau  lay  in  the  planting  of  the  free 
school  among  Negroes,  and  the  idea  of  free  elementary 
education  among  all  classes  in  the  South.  .  .  .  For 
some  fifteen  million  dollars,  beside  the  sum  spent  be 
fore  1865,  and  the  dole  of  benevolent  societies,  this 
bureau  set  going  a  system  of  free  labor,  established  a 
beginning  of  peasant  proprietorship,  secured  the  recog 
nition  of  black  freedmen  before  courts  of  law,  and 
founded  the  free  common  school  in  the  South.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  failed  to  begin  the  establishment  of 
good  will  between  ex-masters  and  freedmen,  to  guard 
its  work  wholly  from  paternalistic  methods  which 
discouraged  self-reliance,  and  to  carry  out  to  any  con 
siderable  extent  its  implied  promises  to  furnish  the 
freedmen  with  land."  f  To  this  tale  of  its  shortcom 
ings  must  be  added  also  the  management  of  the 
Freedmen's  Bank,  which  "was  morally  and  practically 
part  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau,  although  it  had  no 
legal  connection  with  it."  This  institution  made  a 

*  Andrew  Carnegie,  The  Negro  in  America,  23. 
j  DuBois,  The  Souls  of  Black  Folk,  32-37. 


ENFRANCHISEMENT  127 

really  remarkable  start  in  the  development  of  thrift 
among  the  Negroes,  and  its  failure,  involving  the  loss 
of  the  first  savings  of  hundreds  of  ex-slaves,  was  as 
disastrous  in  its  moral  as  in  its  immediate  financial 
consequences. 

79.  Representative  Negroes. — Deserving  at  least 
of  passing  notice  in  this  interesting  period  is  the  large 
number  of  Negroes  that .  the  new  order  of  events 
brought  into  prominence.  The  freedmen  were  not 
only  very  active  in  Southern  legislatures,  but  were  also 
frequently  sent  to  Congress.  Mississippi  sent  Hiram 
R.  Revels  and  Blanche  K.  Bruce  to  the  United  States 
Senate,  and  a  considerable  number  of  Negroes  went 
to  the  House  of  Representatives.  South  Carolina 
was  represented  by  Robert  C.  DeLarge,  Alonzo  J. 
Ransier,  Joseph  H.  Rainey,  Robert  Smalls,  and 
Robert  B.  Elliott;  Alabama  sent  James  T.  Rapier,  and 
Mississippi  John  R.  Lynch.  Oscar  J.  Dunn,  P.  B.  S. 
Pinchback,  and  C.  C.  Antoine  became  lieutenant- 
governors  of  Louisiana;  Richard  H.  Gleaves  and 
Alonzo  J.  Ransier  held  the  same  position  in  South 
Carolina,  and  Alexander  Davis  in  Mississippi.  Of  all 
these  men  the  foremost  for  general  ability  were  Robert 
B.  Elliott  and  Blanche  K.  Bruce.  Elliott  was  born  in 
Boston,  received  a  good  education  in  England,  and, 
returning  to  America,  developed  highly  the  arts  of 
a  politician.  In  Congress  he  attracted  attention  by 


128    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

a  speech  in  reply  to  Alexander  Stevens  of  Georgia  on 
the  constitutionality  of  the  Civil  Rights  Bill.  Bruce 
was  well  informed  on  matters  pertaining  to  the  race, 
and  in  the  course  of  his  life  held  several  public  offices 
besides  the  senatorship.  For  two  separate  terms 
(1881-5  and  1897-8)  he  was  Register  of  the  Treasury. 
80.  KuKlux  Klan. — An  important  consideration  in 
this  era  of  change  is  the  means  by  which  the  white 
people  of  the  South  regained  political  power.  Even 
before  the  war  a  secret  organization,  the  Knights  of 
the  Golden  Circle,  had  been  formed  to  advance  South 
ern  interests;  but  far  more  important  than  anything 
of  this  nature  that  had  preceded  it  was  the  KuKlux 
Klan.*  This  organization  began  in  Tennessee  in  1866 
as  an  association  of  young  men  for  amusement,  and 
its  membership  included  some  of  the  representative 
citizens  of  the  Old  South.  It  soon  developed,  however, 
into  a  union  for  the  purpose  of  whipping,  banishing, 
terrorizing,  and  murdering  Negroes  and  Northern 
white  men  who  encouraged  them  in  the  exercise  of 
their  political  rights.  The  costume  of  the  members 
especially  was  designed  to  play  upon  the  superstitious 
nature  of  the  uneducated  Negroes.  "  Loose  flowing 
sleeves  [were  worn],  with  a  hood,  in  which  the  apertures 
for  the  eyes,  nose  and  mouth  were  trimmed  with  some 
red  material.  The  hood  had  also  three  horns,  made 

*  From  Greek  Kv/cAos  meaning  circle,  and  the  English  clan. 


ENFRANCHISEMENT  1 29 

of  some  common  cotton-stuff,  standing  out  on  its 
front  and  sides."*  The  KuKlux  Klan  finally  ex 
tended  over  the  whole  South,  being  highly  developed 
in  its  organization;  and  it  greatly  increased  its  opera 
tions  on  the  cessation  of  martial  law  in  1870.  As  it 
worked  generally  at  night  with  its  members  in  dis 
guise,  it  was  difficult  for  a  grand  jury  to  get  evidence 
on  which  to  frame  a  bill,  and  almost  impossible  to  get 
a  jury  that  would  return  a  verdict  for  the  state.  Re 
peated  measures  against  the  order  were  of  little  effect 
until  an  act  of  1870  extended  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States  courts  to  all  KuKlux  cases.  After  this 
the  Klan  declined  and  eventually  died  out. 

81.  Negro  Exodus. — The  aftermath  of  the  whole 
reconstruction  era  was  what  was  known  as  the  Negro 
Exodus.  By  1879  conditions  in  the  South  had  changed 
so  much  that  Negroes  were  denied  political  recogni 
tion,  were  charged  exorbitant  prices  by  many  mer 
chants,  were  forced  to  pay  excessive  rents,  and  gener 
ally  kept  down  in  every  possible  way.  At  last  in  some 
localities,  especially  in  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and 
Texas,  the  state  of  affairs  became  so  bad  as  to  be  no 
longer  tolerable.  A  general  convention  of  Negroes 
held  in  Nashville  in  May,  1879,  adopted  a  report 
that  set  forth  their  grievances  and  encouraged  emigra 
tion  to  the  North  and  West,  where  rights  would  not 

*  Fleming,  II,  364. 


130    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

be  denied.  Thousands  now  left  their  homes  in  the 
South,  going  in  greatest  numbers  to  Kansas,  Missouri, 
and  Indiana.  Within  about  twenty  months  Kansas 
alone  thus  received  an  addition  to  her  population  of 
40,000  Negroes.  Many  of  these  people  arrived  at  their 
destination  practically  penniless  and  with  no  prospect 
of  immediate  employment.  Large  sums  of  money  for 
their  relief  were  raised  throughout  the  North,  however, 
and  gradually  they  found  a  place  in  their  new  homes. 
In  the  Southeast  there  was  also  some  movement  in  the 
same  direction.  One  account  says  that  in  one  note 
worthy  week  about  5,000  Negroes  removed  from  South 
Carolina  to  Arkansas.  This  part  of  the  country  was 
also  remarkable  for  an  effort  in  another  direction.  In 
1877  the  Liberian  Exodus  Joint  Stock  Company  was 
formed  by  the  Negroes  with  the  threefold  purpose 
of  sending  emigrants  to  Africa,  of  bringing  African 
products  to  America,  and  of  establishing  a  regular 
steamship  line  between  Monrovia  and  Charleston. 
In  this  enterprise  Baptists  and  Methodists  joined 
hands,  and  at  an  expense  of  $7,000  a  vessel,  the 
Azor,  was  purchased  in  Boston.  The  white  people  of 
Charleston,  who  not  only  did  not  wish  to  lose  their 
labor  but  who  also  realized  the  possibilities  of  the 
company  as  a  business  enterprise,  sought  to  embar 
rass  the  promoters  in  every  possible  way.  Although 
the  Azor  had  recently  been  repaired  in  Boston,  they 


ENFRANCHISEMENT  131 

induced  the  custom  house  officials  not  to  grant  it 
clearance  papers  until  a  new  copper  bottom  had  been 
put  on  it  at  an  expense  of  $2,000.  Moreover,  not  all 
the  people  the  vessel  could  hold  were  allowed  to  go  on 
the  first  trip.  Finally,  through  the  treachery  of  the 
captain  and  his  connivance  with  prominent  business 
men  of  Charleston,  the  Azor  was  stolen  and  sold  in 
Liverpool.  One  gets  an  interesting  sidelight  on  con 
ditions  in  these  times  when  he  knows  that  even  the 
United  States  Circuit  Court  in  South  Carolina  refused 
to  entertain  the  suit  brought  by  the  Negroes. 


CHAPTER  IX 

MISSIONARY   ENDEAVOR 

82.  The  Pioneers. — Dr.  DuBois  has  pointed  out 
four  decades  in  Negro  education  since  the  Civil  War: 
(i)  From  1865  to  1876,  the  period  of  uncertain  groping 
and  temporary  relief,  with  army  schools,  mission 
schools,  and  schools  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  in 
chaotic  disarrangement;  (2)  Then  a  decade  of  definite 
effort  toward  the  building  of  complete  school  systems, 
with  normal  schools  and  colleges  training  teachers  for 
the  public  schools;  (3)  From  1885  to  1895,  tne  spring 
ing  into  notice  of  the  industrial  school;  and  (4)  Since 
1895  the  full  recognition  of  the  industrial  school  as  the- 
answer  to  a  combined  educational  and  economic 
crisis.  Too  much  credit  can  hardly  be  given  to  the 
heroic  men  and  women  who  labored  in  the  first  of 
these  periods.  Those  people  of  the  North  who  took 
upon  themselves  the  education  of  the  Negro  imme 
diately  after  the  war  had  no  enviable  task.  They  had 
as  their  lot  only  prejudice  and  ostracism,  and  an  in 
finite  amount  of  hard  work ;  and  their  only  reward  was 
a  high  sense  of  duty  well  done.  Where  so  many  were 
noble  it  is  almost  unjust  to  mention  names;  but  in  any 

132 


MISSIONARY  ENDEAVOR  133 

case  deserving  of  honor  were  General  Armstrong  at 
Hampton,  President  Cravath  at  Fisk,  President  Tup- 
per  at  Shaw,  President  Ware  at  Atlanta  University, 
and,  of  a  slightly  later  date,  at  Spelman  Seminary, 
Presidents  Sophia  B.  Packard  and  Harriet  E.  Giles. 
Just  as  earnest  as  such  teachers  as  these  were  those 
who  devoted  themselves  to  mission  work  in  the  homes 
of  the  freedmen,  of  whom  a  sterling  example  is  Miss 
Joanna  P.  Moore,  of  Nashville,  who  for  fifty  years  has 
labored  in  the  cause  of  her  Fireside  Schools. 

83.  Philanthropy. — For  the  execution  of  the  task 
at  hand  money  was  needed,  and  private  philanthropy 
was  not  lacking,  though  even  the  most  princely  gifts 
were  inadequate  for  the  great  work  to  be  done.  In 
1867  George  Peabody,  a  great  American  merchant 
and  patriot,  established  the  Peabody  Educational 
Fund  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  "intellectual, 
moral,  and  industrial  education  in  the  most  destitute 
portion  of  the  Southern  states."  In  all  cases  the 
trustees  of  this  fund  worked  in  unison  with  state  and 
local  authorities.  In  the  first  thirty  years  of  its  exist 
ence  a  total  of  more  than  $2,500,000  was  distributed 
in  the  South,  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry  being  one  of  the 
agents.  In  1888  Daniel  Hand  of  Connecticut  gave 
$1,000,000  to  the  American  Missionary  Association. 
In  1882  John  F.  Slater  established  an  endowment  for 
the  encouragement  of  industrial  education  among 


134    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

the  Negroes  in  the  South.  The  annual  income  from 
this  has  been  about  $60,000,  and  Bishop  Atticus  G. 
Haygood  and  Dr.  Curry  were  for  certain  periods 
agents  of  the  fund.  In  recent  years  the  Peabody  and 
Slater  boards  have  become  closely  affiliated  with  the 
General  Education  Board  and  the  Southern  Education 
Board  of  New  York,  the  General  Education  Board 
being  the  medium  of  the  philanthropy  of  John  D. 
Rockefeller. 

84.  Howard  University. — In  addition  to  such  pri 
vate  giving  as  this,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  United 
States  Government  in  1867  crowned  its  work  for  the 
education  of  the  Negro  by  the  establishment  at  Wash 
ington  of  Howard  University.  This  institution, 
named  for  General  O.  0.  Howard,  has  stood  for  the 
highest  collegiate  and  professional  training  of  the 
Negro;  and  its  Teachers  College  and  its  Medical  School 
are  widely  distinguished  for  their  peculiar  emphasis. 
To  the  resources  of  its  own  laboratories  and  library 
it  adds  the  advantages  of  an  institution  located  at  the 
national  capital  and  fostered  by  the  government.  In 
all  departments  there  were  in  1911-12,  1,473  students, 
the  College  of  Arts  and  Sciences  and  the  Teachers 
College  together  enrolling  382  students,  a  much  larger 
number  of  students  of  collegiate  grade  than  is  to  be 
found  in  any  other  institution  emphasizing  the  educa 
tion  of  the  Negro.  In  the  far  South  the  chief  efforts 


MISSIONARY  ENDEAVOR  135 

for  education  were  those  put  forth  by  the  various 
missionary  organizations  of  the  North. 

85.  American  Missionary  Association. — One  of  the 
unfortunate  but  practically  inevitable  characteristics 
of  missionary  endeavor  in  Negro  education  was  the 
utter  independence  of  one  another  of  all  the  efforts 


put  forth  by  the  different  religious  organizations.  The 
American  Missionary  Association  was  organized  be 
fore  the  Civil  War  on  an  interdenominational  and 
strong  anti-slavery  basis.  With  the  withdrawal  of 
general  interest,  however,  this  body  passed  in  1881 
into  the  hands  of  the  Congregational  Church.  It  was 
the  first  of  all  the  benevolent  organizations  to  begin 
educational  work,  opening  a  school  inJHampton,  Va., 
in  1 86 1,  and  founding  immediately  after  the  war  its 
permanent  institutions.  It  was  decided  to  establish 
one  school  of  higher  learning  in  each  of  the  larger  states 
of  the  South,  normal  and  graded  schools  in  the  prin 
cipal  cities,  and  common  and  parochial  schools  in 
smaller  villages  and  country  places.  Under  this  plan 
arose  Hampton  in  Virginia,  Atlanta  University  in 
Georgia,  Berea  College  in  Kentucky,  Fisk  University 
in  Tennessee,  Straight  University  in  Louisiana,  Tal- 
ladega  College  in  Alabama,  Tougaloo  University  in 
Mississippi,  and  Tillotson  College  in  Texas.  Hampton 
and  Atlanta  University  are  now  independent;  and 
Berea  has  had  a  peculiar  history,  legislation  having 


136    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

compelled  the  withdrawal  of  her  Negro  students  a 
few  years  ago.  Fisk  is  noted  for  her  comparatively 
large  number  of  college  graduates  and  for  her  em 
phasis  on  music.  One  of  the  most  inspiring  chapters 
in  her  history  is  that  of  the  Jubilee  Singers,  of  whom 
we  shall  have  more  to  say  in  our  chapter  on  "Negro 
Achievement  in  Literature,  Art,  and  Invention." 
Atlanta  University  has  in  recent  years  attracted  na 
tional  attention  by  her  original  studies  of  questions 
relating  to  the  Negro,  these  being  conducted  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Atlanta  Conference.  Theological 
departments  have  been  established  at  Fisk,  Talladega, 
and  Straight;  and  generally  the  American  Missionary 
Association  has  emphasized  manual  and  industrial  as 
well  as  collegiate  training,  Talladega  College  having 
antedated  all  other  schools  in  establishing  an  industrial 
department.  Besides  its  institutions  of  collegiate 
grade,  the  Association  now  maintains  more  than  forty 
normal  and  graded  schools,  and  more  than  thirty 
common  schools.  The  normal  and  graded  schools 
include  the  Avery  Institute  in  Charleston,  the  Le- 
Moyne  in  Memphis,  the  Beach  in  Savannah,  the  Bal- 
lard  Normal  in  Macon,  Ga.,  and  the  Lincoln  Normal 
in  Marion,  Ark.  Generally  representative  of  the 
secondary  schools  is  the  Joseph  K.  Brick  Agricultural, 
Industrial  and  Normal  School  in  Enneld,  N.  C.,  which 
has  10  buildings  and  1,129  acres  of  land. 


MISSIONARY  ENDEAVOR  137 

86.  American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society.— 
The  first  step  by  the  American  Baptist  Home  Mission 
Society  for  the  refugees  who  came  into  the  lines  of  the 
Union  army  was  taken  in  January,  1862;  and  the  first 
teachers  were  appointed  in  June  of  this  year.  From 
the  first  the  idea  of  religious  education  was  prominent 
in  the  efforts  in  behalf  of  the  freedmen.  Wherever  they 
could  do  so,  the  teachers  brought  together  the  Negro 
preachers  for  instruction  in  the  rudiments  of  learning 
and  for  the  organization  of  churches,  associations, 
and  conventions.  This  ideal  of  an  educated  ministry 
becomes  important  when  one  remembers  how  great 
an  influence  preachers  have  among  the  Negro  people, 
and  how  many  of  the  people  are  Baptists.  Gradually, 
to  meet  the  demand  for  the  education  of  the  young 
people,  institutions  of  learning  were  established,  and 
the  work  of  the  Society  has  expanded  until  it  now  em 
braces  a  chain  of  schools.  This  organization  has  more 
over  helped  a  great  many  schools  which  are  owned  by 
Negroes.  The  schools  of  higher  learning  that  the 
Society  now  owns  and  operates  (in  some  cases  in  co 
operation  with  the  Women's  American  Baptist  Home 
Mission  Society)  are  eight  in  number,  as  follows:  two 
devoted  to  the  education  of  young  men,  Atlanta  Bap 
tist  College  and  Virginia  Union  University;  two  de 
voted  to  the  training  of  young  women,  Spelman  Semi 
nary  in  Atlanta  and  Hartshorn  Memorial  College  in 


138    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

Richmond;  four  that  are  co-educational,  Bishop  Col 
lege  in  Marshall,  Texas,  Benedict  College  in  Colum 
bia,  S.  C.,  Shaw  University  in  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  and 
Jackson  College  in  Jackson,  Miss.  These  schools  are 
supposed  to  be  of  the  same  rank;  but  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  with  the  exception  of  the  co-operation  of  Atlanta 
Baptist  College  and  Spelman  Seminary,  they  are  not 
co-ordinated,  and  as  they  have  developed  they  have 
consciously  or  unconsciously  emphasized  very  differ 
ent  things.  Perhaps  a  little  more  than  the  others 
Atlanta  Baptist  College  and  Virginia  Union  Univer 
sity  have  laid  stress  on  regular  college  work.  Prom 
inent  in  theological  training  is  Virginia  Union,  whose 
department  was  formerly  the  Richmond  Theological 
Seminary.  Atlanta  Baptist  College,  Benedict,  and 
Shaw  also  offer  divinity  training.  Spelman  Seminary 
is  the  largest  institution  in  the  world  devoted  solely  to 
the  education  of  Negro  young  women.  It  enrolled  in 
all  departments  in  1910-11  664  students.  The  col 
legiate  work  is  in  connection  with  that  of  Atlanta 
Baptist  College;  but  the  school  is  best  known  for  its 
training  of  teachers  and  nurses,  for  its  emphasis  on 
domestic  science,  and  for  its  constant  ideal  of  Christian 
womanhood.  Spelman  has  moreover  in  the  record  of 
her  graduates  who  have  gone  as  missionaries  to 
Africa  a  tradition  as  glorious  as  that  of  the  Fisk 
Jubilee  Singers.  Benedict  has  for  some  years  had  a 


MISSIONARY  ENDEAVOR  139 

good  band.  Shaw  emphasizes  professional  training, 
the  medical  department  being  the  Leonard  Medical 
School.  In  connection  with  the  American  Baptist 
Home  Mission  Society  mention  should  also  be  made 
of  the  American  Baptist  Publication  Society,  an  or 
ganization  which  after  the  Civil  War  by  institutes  and 
Bible  distribution  did  a  great  deal  for  the  education  of 
Negro  Baptist  ministers,  but  whose  activities  have  in 
recent  years  been  greatly  curtailed  by  the  success  of 
the  distinctively  Negro  enterprise,  the  National  Bap 
tist  Publishing  Board. 

87.  Freedman's  Aid  Society. — As  will  be  seen  later, 
a  consideration  of  the  educational  work  of  most  of  the 
Methodist  denominations  belongs  to  the  chapter  on 
Self-Help  in  Negro  Education  rather  than  to  that  on 
Missionary  Endeavor.  The  Freedman's  Aid  and 
Southern  Education  Society,  however,  was  organized 
by  the  Northern  Methodists  in  1866  and  was  purely 
missionary  in  its  purpose.  From  the  first  it  has  been 
prominent  in  the  work  in  the  South.  It  now  supports 
nearly  fifty  institutions.  Ten  of  these  are  collegiate 
in  scope.  They  are  Clark  University  in  South  At 
lanta,  Ga.,  Claflin  University  in  Orangeburg,  S.  C., 
New  Orleans  University  in  New  Orleans,  La.,  Rust 
University  in  Holly  Springs,  Miss.,  Walden  Univer 
sity  in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Wiley  University  in  Marshall, 
Texas,  Bennett  College  in  Greensboro,  N.  C.,  the 


140    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

George  R.  Smith  College  in  Sedalia,  Mo.,  Morgan  Col 
lege  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  Philander  Smith  College 
in  Little  Rock,  Ark.  In  connection  with  Walden  is 
the  Meharry  Medical  School.  Gammon  Theological 
Seminary  in  South  Atlanta,  Ga.,  is  the  most  thor 
oughly  equipped  and  the  best  endowed  theological 
seminary  in  the  entire  South,  and  as  an  institution  for 
the  education  of  Negro  ministers  it  is  the  most  thor 
oughly  equipped  and  the  best  endowed  in  the  world. 

88.  Presbyterian  Board  of  Missions. — In  1882,  after 
the  missionary  work  of  various  Presbyterian  com 
mittees  had  for  some  time  been  consolidated,  the 
resulting  central  committee  became  incorporated  as 
"The  Board  of  Missions  for  Freedmen  of  the  Presby 
terian  Church  in  the  United  States  of  America."  This 
organization  has  been  active  in  church  as  well  as  school 
work;  but  its  purely  religious  activities  must  be  re 
served  for  consideration  in  connection  with  the  Negro 
Church.  Even  before  the  War,  in  1854,  a  Presbyte 
rian  minister,  John  M.  Dickey,  established  in  Pennsyl 
vania  Ashmun  Institute,  later  and  better  known  as 
Lincoln  University.  The  larger  part  of  the  work  of 
the  Presbyterian  Board  lies  in  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  and  southern  Virginia.  With  Lincoln  Uni 
versity  the  most  prominent  institutions  are  Biddle 
University,  in  Charlotte,  N.  C.,  and  the  five  seminaries 
for  girls,  Ingleside  in  Burkeville,  Va.,  Scotia  in  Con- 


MISSIONARY  ENDEAVOR  141 

cord,  N.  C.,  Barber  Memorial  in  Anniston,  Ala.,  Mary 
Holmes  in  West  Point,  Miss.,  and  Mary  Allen  in 
Crockett,  Texas.  To  these  institutions  must  be  added 
over  seventy  academies  and  parochial  schools.  Be 
sides  the  work  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Mis 
sions  considerable  work  is  done  by  the  United  and 
the  Southern  Presbyterians,  the  United  Presby 
terians  maintaining  Knoxville  College  in  Knoxville, 
Tenn. 

89.  Other  Agencies. — The  Jour  large  organizations 
just  considered  have  been  responsible  for  most  of  the 
work  done  in  the  South  for  the  high  school  and  col 
legiate  training  of  the  Negro.  This  of  course  takes 
no  account  of  the  state  schools;  and  those  which  the 
Negro  has  built  for  himself  are  yet  to  be  considered. 
The  .state  schools  have  in  recent  years  greatly  em 
phasized  agricultural  training,  with  a  corresponding 
lowering  of  literary  standards.  The  one  in  Talla 
hassee,  Fla.,  however,  is  above  the  average  in  technical 
studies.  A  full  study  of  missionary  enterprises  would 
also  consider  the  work  of  the  Episcopalians  and  the 
Catholics.  Prominent  Episcopal  schools  are  the  St. 
Paul  Normal  and  Industrial  School  at  Lawrence ville, 
Va.,  and  St.  Augustine's  School  in  Raleigh,  N.  C. 
Roman  Catholics  operate  St.  Joseph's  Industrial 
School  for  Colored  Boys  in  Clayton,  Del.,  St.  Augus 
tine's  Academy  in  Lebanon,  Ky.,  and  St.  Frances' 


142     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

Academy  in  Baltimore.  Altogether  they  have  in  the 
United  States  for  Negro  children  87  schools,  cared  for 
by  24  sisterhoods,  with  an  attendance  of  about  7,500. 
They  have,  however,  made  little  advance  in  the 
representative  Southern  states. 

90.  Scholarship  in  the  Schools. — Whatever  may  be 
the  name  of  an  institution  mentioned  in  this  chapter, 
no  one  is  as  yet  a  fully  equipped  university,  as  no  one 
yet  maintains  a  graduate  school.  Howard,  however, 
with  its  professional  departments  and  with  its  peculiar 
environment  and  support,  has  already  made  some  be 
ginning  in  graduate  study,  and  needs  only  a  little  more 
emphasis  in  this  direction  to  satisfy  every  possible 
standard.  Because  of  the  inadequate  training  given 
in  the  common  schools  of  the  South,  no  institution  has 
yet  found  it  advisable  to  cut  off  all  literary  depart 
ments  below  the  college.  Even  those  that  are  fore 
most  still  retain  their  academies.  The  best  basis  for 
a  study  of  the  scholarship  in  these  institutions  is  the 
standing  that  their  graduates  attain  and  maintain  in 
the  great  Northern  universities.  Judged  by  this 
standard  the  graduates  of  some  of  the  poorer  of  the 
colleges  are  in  real  ability  not  equal  to  the  boy  who  has 
just  graduated  from  St.  Paul's  or  from  Worcester 
Academy.  There  are,  however,  eight  or  ten  institu 
tions  in  which  a  very  different  standard  is  maintained, 
and  graduates  from  these  are  sometimes  required  to 


MISSIONARY  ENDEAVOR  143 

spend  only  a  year  at  a  Northern  university  before 
receiving  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  if  indeed 
they  do  not  choose  to  enter  a  graduate  school  at  once. 
In  every  case  much  depends  on  the  individual.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  the  Southern  Negro  graduate  most 
often  maintains  very  high  standing  in  the  North — 
naturally,  for  he  is  frequently  the  picked  man  from  his 
college.  One  of  the  most  interesting  things  about  this 
continuation  of  study  is  the  preference  shown  by  cer 
tain  schools  in  the  South  for  certain  ones  in  the  North. 
This  is  generally  determined  by  the  success  at  the 
great  Northern  university  of  one  or  two  of  the  earlier 
graduates  of  the  Negro  college;  thus,  while  exceptions 
may  of  course  be  found,  Atlanta  University  men  go  to 
Harvard,  Atlanta  Baptist  College  men  to  the  Univer 
sity  of  Chicago,  and  Talladega  men  tread  one  beaten 
path  to  Yale.  All  of  this  of  course  takes  no  account  of 
those  Negro  students  who  pursue  their  whole  course 
in  a  Northern  college.  Those  who  have  thus  studied 
and  graduated  now  number  about  eight  hundred.  The 
whole  matter  of  the  efficiency  of  the  work  of  a  Negro 
college  depends  on  the  ability  of  the  students  who  are 
admitted  to  it.  The  college  preparatory  course  then 
becomes  of  supreme  importance;  and  it  is  here  where 
standards  ought  to  be  highest  that  the  greatest  di 
vergency  appears.  The  three  or  four  institutions  of 
the  highest  rank,  however,  insist  on  all  the  standards 


144    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

of  the   Carnegie  Foundation,  and  sometimes  exact 
even  more  than  these  demand. 

91.  Collegiate    Activities. — Life    in    these    schools 
seeks  an  outlet  in  various  channels.    Within  the  last 
ten  years  the  college  idea  has  been  much  developed. 
Among  other  activities  intercollegiate  debating  has 
received  considerable  attention.    Early  in  1910  How 
ard,  Fisk,  and  Atlanta  University  formed  a  triangular 
debating  league  and  in  1911  Atlanta  Baptist  College, 
Knoxville,    and   Talladega   did   the   same.     Several 
schools,  notably  Hampton,  Shaw,  Fisk,  and  Atlanta 
University  have  sent  quartettes  through  the  North  to 
raise  money  by  singing  the  old  melodies.    The  annual 
concert  of  the  Mozart  Society  of  Fisk  University  is 
always  an  important  event  in  Nashville.    At  Howard 
University  and  at  Atlanta  University  each  year  for 
several  years  past  an  entire  English  play  has  been 
presented  in  the  course  of  the  school  year,  with  all 
accessories.     All  the  institutions  cultivate  athletics, 
although  only  here  and  there  are  real  gymnasium 
facilities  to  be  found.    In  Y.  M.  C.  A.  work  Atlanta 
Baptist  College  is  conspicuous. 

92.  Outlook  for  the   Colleges.— The   outlook   for 
these  schools  is  not  as  bright  as  it  should  be.    Those 
that   are   independent   have   had   to   weather   some 
stormy    seasons.      With    the    possible    exception    of 
Gammon  Theological  Seminary,  no  one  is  adequately 


MISSIONARY  ENDEAVOR  145 

endowed,  though  here  and  there,  as  at  Benedict,  Fisk, 
Spelman,  and  Atlanta  University,  some  beginning  in 
this  direction  has  been  made.  The  dominance  in 
recent  years  of  the  idea  of  purely  practical  education/ 
for  Negroes  has  directed  the  means  of  philanthropists 
toward  schools  which  emphasize  industrial  training. 
There  is,  however,  no  real  conflict  between  the  in 
dustrial  school  and  the  college.  Each  has  an  impor 
tant  function  to  fulfill,  and  each  deserves  support. 
Somewhat  too  much,  however,  most  of  the  Negro 
colleges  have  in  the  past  placed  emphasis  on  philo 
sophical  and  theoretical  subjects,  and  on  the  classics. 
This  was  due  to  some  extent  to  the  old  traditions 
under  which  their  founders  labored,  and  to  some  de 
gree  to  their  generally  inadequate  teaching  and  labora 
tory  facilities.  They  should  find  it  possible  in  the 
future,  however,  to  give  their  graduates  a  little  broader 
outlook  upon  life,  and  to  this  end  to  give  such  im 
portant  subjects  as  English  and  Physics  the  place  in 
the  curriculum  that  they  deserve. 

93.  Results  of  the  Work.— Most  of  the  graduates  of 
these  institutions  are  of  course  those  from  high  school 
courses.  Negro  college  graduates  in  the  United  States 
now  number  altogether  about  five  thousand.  The 
figure  would  have  to  be  increased  fivefold  in  order  to 
sustain  to  the  total  Negro  population  the  same  ratio  as 
that  held  by  the  total  number  of  college  graduates  in 


146     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

the  country  to  the  total  population.  Recent  statistics 
show  that  fifty-four  per  cent  of  these  graduates  are  en 
gaged  in  teaching  and  twenty  per  cent  in  preaching. 
In  conclusion  we  may  accept  with  reference  to  the  re 
sults  of  the  work  the  word  of  two  men  who  have  had 
exceptional  opportunities  for  study  of  the  subject  and 
who  may  be  said  to  speak  generally  for  the  experience 
of  the  Northern  organizations.  Says  Dr.  H.  L.  More- 
house  of  the  American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society  ,* 
"In  my  years  of  service  for  the  Society  I  have  seen  th'.' 
coarse  country  boy  become  the  talented  preacher,  the 
cultured  professor,  and  the  wise  leader  of  thousands, 
and  from  long  and  wide  acquaintance  and  observation 
I  am  prepared  to  say  that  the  investment  has  paid 
a  hundredfold;"  and  Dr.  James  W.  Cooper  of  the 
American  Missionary  Association  says:  "The  people 
have  advanced.  Their  progress  has  been  phenomenal. 
The  record  of  forty  years  is  one  of  inspiration  and  en 
couragement  as  we  look  back  upon  the  brave  and  pa 
tient  struggles  of  this  lowly  people,  out  of  the  disabil 
ities  of  slavery  into  the  good  estate  of  a  self-respecting 
freedom." 


CHAPTER  X 

THE   TUSKEGEE   IDEA 

94.  Hampton  Institute. — Hampton  Normal  and 
Agricultural  Institute  was  opened  in  April,  1868,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  American  Missionary  Association, 
with  General  Samuel  Chapman  Armstrong  in  charge. 
In  1870  it  was  chartered  by  a  special  act  of  the  General 
Assembly  of  Virginia  and  thus  became  independent. 
The  aim  of  the  school  was  expressed  by  its  founder  in 
the  following  words:  "To  train  selected  youth  who 
shall  go  out  and  teach  and  lead  their  people,  first  by 
example  by  getting  land  and  homes ;  to  give  them  not 
a  dollar  that  they  can  earn  for  themselves;  to  teach 
respect  for  labor;  to  replace  stupid  drudgery  with 
skilled  hands;  and  to  these  ends  to  build  up  an  indus 
trial  system,  for  the  sake  of  character."  On  the  In 
stitute  grounds  there  are  113  buildings,  including 
instructors'  cottages,  and  at  Shellbanks,  six  miles  dis 
tant,  there  are  22  buildings;  76  of  the  buildings  were 
erected  by  student  labor.  The  home  farm  contains 
1 20  acres,  and  the  one  at  Shellbanks  about  600.  Op 
portunity  is  afforded  for  a  great  diversity  of  farm 

147 


148    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

operations,  and  it  is  intended  that  every  boy  who 
graduates  from  the  academic  department  shall  have 
some  skill  in  the  building  arts,  and  that  every  girl 
shall  be  correspondingly  expert  in  domestic  science. 
The  course  of  study  emphasizes  English  composition 
and  subjects  of  current  interest.  A  summer  school  for 
teachers  is  held,  and  an  annual  conference  in  July 
brings  together  some  of  the  best  representatives  of  the 
race,  considering  such  subjects  as  The  Relation  of  the 
School  to  the  Community;  Country  Life;  Health;  the 
Sunday-School;  Life  Insurance;  Co-operation  as  a 
Means  of  Progress.  In  1910-11  the  enrollment,  ex 
cluding  the  normal  practice  school,  was  875;  including 
this  school  it  was  1,399.  The  practical  nature  of  the 
work  at  Hampton,  the  thoroughness  of  the  training, 
the  military  discipline,  the  opportunity  for  technical 
education,  and  the  beauty  of  the  location  have  made 
the  school  deservedly  famous. 

95.  The  Time  and  the  Man.— Here  then  at  Hamp 
ton  Institute  was  developing  a  marvellous  equipment, 
emphasis  being  given  to  matters  of  daily  interest  and 
concern.  Hardly  anyone  realized  in  1880  how  much 
the  sort  of  training  here  given  was  in  accord  with  the 
industrial  spirit  so  soon  to  make  itself  felt  in  the  South. 
For  a  decade  young  men  and  women  had  been  sent 
forth  with  the  message  of  cleaner  and  thriftier  living; 
but  their  activity  had  been  confined  almost  wholly  to 


THE  TUSKEGEE  IDEA  149 

Virginia.  The  thing  needed  was  for  some  strong  man 
to  go  down  to  the  cotton  belt,  interpret  the  lesson  for 
the  men  and  women  digging  in  the  ground,  teach  them 
better  methods,  and  generally  place  them  in  line  with 
the  South's  development.  The  man  was  ready  in  the 
person  of  one  of  Hampton's  own  graduates. 

96.  Booker  T.  Washington.— Booker  Taliaferro 
Washington  was  born  about  1858  in  Franklin  County, 
Virginia.  After  the  Civil  War  his  mother  and  step 
father  removed  to  Maiden,  West  Virginia,  where  when 
he  became  large  enough  he  worked  in  the  salt  furnaces 
and  the  coal  mines.  He  had  always  been  called 
Booker,  but  it  was  not  until  he  went  to  a  little  school 
at  his  home  and  found  that  he  needed  a  surname  that 
on  the  spur  of  the  moment  he  adopted  Washington. 
In  1872  he  worked  his  way  to  Hampton  Institute, 
where  he  paid  his  expenses  by  assisting  as  a  janitor. 
Graduating  in  1875,  he  returned  to  Maiden  and  taught 
school  for  three  years.  He  then  attended  for  a  year 
Wayland  Seminary  in  Washington  (now  incorporated 
in  Virginia  Union  University  in  Richmond),  and  in 
1879  was  appointed  an  instructor  at  Hampton.  In 
1 88 1  there  came  to  General  Armstrong  a  call  from  the 
little  town  of  Tuskegee,  Ala.,  for  some  one  to  organize 
and  become  the  principal  of  a  normal  school  which  the 
people  wanted  to  start  in  that  town.  He  recommended 
Mr.  Washington,  who  opened  the  school  on  the  4th  of 


150     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

July  in  an  old  church  and  a  little  shanty,  with  an  at 
tendance  of  thirty  pupils.  In  1895  Mr.  Washington 
came  into  national  prominence  by  a  remarkable  speech 
at  the  Cotton  States  Exposition  in  Atlanta,  and  since 
that  time  he  has  interested  educators  and  thinking 
people  generally  in  the  working  out  of  his  ideas  of 
practical  education.  In  1896  the  degree  of  Master 
of  Arts  was  conferred  on  him  by  Harvard  University, 
and  that  of  Doctor  of  Laws  by  Dartmouth  in  1901. 

97.  Message  to  the  South. — The  message  which  this 
man  brought  to  the  South,  both  to  his  own  and  to  the 
white  people,  may  best  be  expressed  in  his  own  words 
at  the  Atlanta  Exposition:  "To  those  of  my  race  who 
depend  on  bettering  their  condition  in  a  foreign  land, 
or  who  underestimate  the  importance  of  cultivating 
friendly  relations  with  the  Southern  white  man,  who  is 
their  next  door  neighbor,  I  would  say:  'Cast  down 
your  bucket  where  you  are' — cast  it  down  in  making 
friends  in  every  manly  way  of  the  people  of  all  races 
by  whom  we  are  surrounded.  ...  To  those  of  the 
white  race  who  look  to  the  incoming  of  those  of  foreign 
birth  and  strange  tongue  and  habits  for  the  prosperity 
of  the  South,  were  I  permitted  I  would  repeat  what  I 
say  to  my  own  race,  'Cast  down  your  bucket  where 
you  are/  Cast  it  down  among  the  8,000,000  Negroes 
whose  habits  you  know,  whose  fidelity  and  love  you 
have  tested  in  days  when  to  have  proved  treacherous 


THE  TUSKEGEE  IDEA  151 

meant  the  ruin  of  your  firesides.  ...  In  all  things 
that  are  purely  social  we  can  be  as  separate  as  the 
fingers,  yet  one  as  the  hand  in  all  things  essential  to 
mutual  progress." 

98.  Significant  Utterances. — It  is  of  course  hardly 
fair  to  represent  any  man  by  detached  extracts  from 
various  addresses;  at  the  same  time  it  is  possible  to 
select  from  the  speeches  of  Dr.  Washington  a  few 
sentences  which,  taken  together,  may  give  a  fairly 
adequate  idea  of  his  teaching  and  his  gospel  of  work. 
Here  are  some  such:  " Freedom  can  never  be  given. 
It  must  be  purchased."  *  "The  race,  like  the  individ 
ual,  that  makes  itself  indispensable,  has  solved  most  of 
its  problems."  *  "As  a  race  there  are  two  things  we 
must  learn  to  do — one  is  to  put  brains  into  the  com 
mon  occupations  of  life,  and  the  other  is  to  dignify 
common  labor."  f  "Ignorant  and  inexperienced,  it  is 
not  strange  that  in  the  first  years  of  our  new  life  we 
began  at  the  top  instead  of  at  the  bottom;  that  a  seat 
in  Congress  or  the  State  Legislature  was  worth  more 
than  real  estate  or  industrial  skill."  J  "The  opportu 
nity  to  earn  a  dollar  in  a  factory  just  now  is  worth 
infinitely  more  than  the  opportunity  to  spend  a  dollar 
in  an  opera  house."  J  "One  of  the  most  vital  ques- 

*  Speech  before  N.  E.  A.  in  St.  Louis,  June  30,  1904. 

t  Speech  at  Fisk  University,  1895. 

t  Speech  at  Atlanta  Exposition,  Sept.  18,  1895. 


152    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

tions  that  touch  our  American  life,  is  how  to  bring  the 
strong,  wealthy  and  learned  into  helpful  contact  with 
the  poorest,  most  ignorant,  and  humblest,  and  at  the 
same  time  make  the  one  appreciate  the  vitalizing, 
strengthening  influence  of  the  other."  "There  is  no 
defense  or  security  for  any  of  us  except  in  the  highest 
intelligence  and  development  of  all."  f 

99.  Tuskegee  Institute. — The  general  expression  of 
Dr.  Washington's  views  about  industrial  education 
and  the  importance  of  the  Negro's  accumulating  prop 
erty  and  making  himself  respected,  has  been  Tuske 
gee  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute.  Beginning  in 
1 88 1  with  one  teacher  and  only  an  annual  grant  of 
$2,000  from  the  Alabama  Legislature,  this  school  has 
developed  until  in  1910-11  it  enrolled  1,702  students 
with  about  175  instructors,  and  possessed  more  than 
80  buildings  constructed  largely  by  student  labor,  and 
had  about  40  industries  in  actual  operation.  In  the 
academic  department  as  well  as  in  the  industries, 
practical  training  is  emphasized.  One  of  the  most  im 
portant  parts  of  Tuskegee  is  the  Extension  Work. 
This  includes  the  well  known  Annual  Negro  Confer 
ence;  the  Farmers'  Monthly  Institute;  the  Short 
Course  in  Agriculture;  the  Farm  Demonstration  work, 
now  extended  to  Mississippi  and  Texas,  and  partly 

*  Speech  at  Harvard  University,  June  24,  1896. 
t  Speech  at  Atlanta  Exposition. 


THE  TUSKEGEE  IDEA  153 

supported  by  the  United  States  Government;  a  town 
night  school;  a  town  afternoon  cooking  class;  the 
County  Institute;  the  Ministers'  Night  School;  a 
weekly  mothers'  meeting;  a  state  and  county  fair;  and 
an  occasional  special  conference,  such  as  one  on  the 
Negro  as  a  World  Problem. 

100.  Offshoots.— The  importance  of  the  Tuskegee 
idea  becomes  manifest  when  it  is  seen  that  Tuskegee 
itself  is  not  the  only  institution  that  in  the  way  of 
practical  education  is  touching  the  life  of  Negroes  in 
the  far  South.    More  than  fifteen  similar  schools  have 
been  established  by  Tuskegee  graduates.    These  are 
widely  scattered,  typical  ones  being  the  Voorhees  In 
dustrial  School,  Denmark,  S.  C.;  the  Robert  Hunger- 
ford  School,  Eatonville,  Fla.;  the  Snow  Hill  Normal 
and  Industrial  Institute,  Snow  Hill,  Ala.;  the  Utica 
Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  Utica,  Miss.;  the 
Topeka  Normal  and   Industrial   Institute,   Topeka, 
Kan.;  the  Port  Royal  Agricultural  School,  Beaufort, 
S.  C.;  and  the  Mt.  Meigs  Institute,  Mt.  Meigs,  Ala. 

101.  National  Negro  Business  League. — One  typical 
organization  will  illustrate  the  influence  of  the  Tuske 
gee  idea.     The  National  Negro  Business  League,  of 
which  Dr.  Washington  was  the  founder  and  is  the 
president,  is  in  no  way  officially  connected  with  Tuske 
gee  Institute ;  yet  it  was  conceived  in  the  spirit  of  that 
institution  and  has  adhered  to  its  line  of  work.     It 


154    ^  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

was  organized  in  1899.  There  are  now  more  than  500 
local  leagues  scattered  throughout  the  country.  When 
they  began  work  there  were  only  about  half  a  dozen 
Negro  banks  in  the  country.  There  are  now  about  80. 
Dry  goods  stores,  grocery  stores,  and  industrial  enter 
prises  to  the  number  of  12,000  have  come  into  exist 
ence.  Of  course  much  of  this  progress  would  have  been 
realized  if  the  Negro  Business  League  had  never  been 
organized;  yet  anyone  must  grant  that  in  all  this 
development  the  genius  of  the  leader  at  Tuskegee  has 
been  the  moving  force. 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE  NEGRO   CHURCH  * 


102.  Sorcery. — Negro  slaves  brought  with  them 
from  Africa  to  America  a  strong  tendency  toward 
nature  worship  and  belief  in  witchcraft.  Some  had  a 
vague  conception  of  a  supreme  being,  and  here  and 
there  may  have  been  found  a  Mohammedan  or  a 
Christian.  Some  native  priests  were  transported; 
others  assumed  the  functions  of  priests,  and  soon  a 
degraded  form  of  African  religion  and  witchcraft  ap 
peared  in  the  West  Indies.  From  this  developed  the 
Voodooism  |  whose  effect  is  still  directly  traceable  in 
many  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  older  and 
more  crafty  priests  possessed  some  skill  in  medical  or 
poisonous  plants  which  well  qualified  them  for  im 
position  upon  the  weak  and  credulous.  These  sor 
cerers  threw  a  veil  of  mystery  over  their  incantations 

*  This  chapter  is  largely,  but  not  wholly,  based  upon  the  valuable 
Atlanta  Conference  study,  The  Negro  Church,  edited  by  Dr.  DuBois. 
Quotation  marks  generally  refer  to  this  publication;  but  in  many 
places  where  it  has  not  been  possible  so  directly  to  give  credit,  the 
study  is  the  source  of  the  information. 

f  Voodoo  or  Hoodoo  is  from  Vaudois,  the  French  form  of  the  name 
of  Peter  Waldo. 

155 


156     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

and  plied  an  exceedingly  lucrative  trade.  Ultimately 
the  whole  system,  which  at  first  had  some  basis  in 
real  religion,  developed  into  mere  imposture.  Al 
though  slavery  in  America  destroyed  completely  al 
most  every  spontaneous  social  movement  among  the 
Africans,  the  Negro  priest  became  an  important  figure 
on  the  plantation,  and  "found  his  function  as  the  in 
terpreter  of  the  supernatural,  the  comforter  of  the 
sorrowing,  and  as  the  one  who  expressed  rudely,  but 
picturesquely,  the  longing  and  disappointment  and 
resentment  of  a  stolen  people."  From  such  beginnings 
rose  and  spread  the  Negro  Church;  and  in  course  of 
time  it  not  unnaturally  became  the  center  of  amuse 
ment  and  economic  activity  as  well  as  of  religion. 

103.  Beginnings  of  the  Negro  Church. — Early  Ne 
gro  churches  came  into  being  in  one  of  the  following 
ways:  (i)  As  the  result  of  special  missionary  effort; 
(2)  As  the  result  of  discrimination  against  Negroes 
during  divine  worship;  (3)  As  the  natural  sequence 
of  unusually  large  congregations;  and  (4)  As  the  ex 
pression  of  the  preference  of  the  Negro  communicants 
themselves.  The  Moravians,  or  United  Brethren, 
were  the  first  who  formally  attempted  the  establish 
ment  of  missions  for  Negroes,  but  these  were  not  very 
successful.  The  Presbyterians  began  work  in  1735. 
Methodism  was  introduced  in  New  York  in  1766  and 
almost  from  the  first  it  made  converts  among  the 


THE  NEGRO  CHURCH  157 

Negroes.  At  any  rate  there  were  in  1786,  among  the 
regular  members  of  Methodist  churches  in  this  coun 
try,  1,890  Negroes,  and  four  years  later  the  number 
had  increased  to  11,682.  Not  unnaturally,  however, 
the  Baptist  denomination,  being  extremely  demo 
cratic,  established  the  first  distinctively  Negro 
churches.  There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to 
which  was  the  very  first  Negro  Baptist  church.  Com 
mon  acceptance  long  supported  the  claim  of  the  First 
Bryan  Baptist  Church,  of  Savannah,  founded  by 
Andrew  Bryan  January  20,  1788.*  It  appears  that  in 
1832  the  larger  part  of  the  congregation  left  this 
church  and  formed  what  is  now  the  large  First  African 
Baptist  Church  of  Savannah.  The  most  recent  stu 
dent  f  of  the  subject,  however,  has  shown  not  only  that 
there  was  a  distinctively  Negro  Baptist  church  in 
Savannah  as  early  as  1779-82,  but  that  there  was  a 
Negro  Baptist  church  at  Silver  Bluff  ("on  the  South 
Carolina  side  of  the  Savannah  River,  in  Aiken  County, 
just  twelve  miles  from  Augusta,  Ga.")  founded  "not 
earlier  than  1773,  not  later  than  1775."  Another  in 
vestigator  {  has  placed  the  first  organization  in  Wil- 
liamsburg,  Va.,  in  1776.  The  St.  Thomas  Episcopal 

*  See  James  M.  Simms,  The  First  Colored  Baptist  Church  in  North 
America. 

t  Walter  H.  Brooks:  The  Silver  Bluff  Church. 

t  John  W.  Cromwell  in  The  Negro  Church,  30-37. 


158    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

Church  in  Philadelphia  was  organized  in  1791;  Bethel 
Church  in  Philadelphia  in  1794,  and  the  Zion  Metho 
dist  Church  in  1796. 

104.  Early  Preachers. — Some  remarkable  men  were 
instrumental  in  these  beginnings.  Easily  foremost 
was  Richard  Allen,  father  of  African  Methodism. 
Born  a  slave,  this  man  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1782, 
and  in  1816  at  the  General  Conference  of  the  African 
Methodist  churches  in  Philadelphia,  he  was  elected 
their  first  bishop.  As  an  organizer  he  possessed  talents 
of  the  highest  order.  He  was  actively  identified  with 
every  forward  movement  among  Negroes,  irrespective 
of  denomination,  and  was  one  of  the  promoters  of  the 
first  national  convention  of  Negroes  ever  held  in  the 
United  States,  that  in  Philadelphia  in  1830.  Asso 
ciated  with  Allen  at  first  was  Absalom  Jones,  who, 
serving  later  at  St.  Thomas,  became  the  first  Negro 
Episcopal  rector  in  the  United  States.  Prominent  also 
was  John  Gloucester,  of  Kentucky,  the  first  Negro 
Presbyterian  minister.  This  man  was  distinguished 
by  his  rich  musical  voice,  and  himself  became  the 
father  of  four  Presbyterian  ministers.  Foremost 
among  the  early  Negro  Baptists  was  Lott  Carey,  of 
Virginia,  a  man  of  massive  and  erect  frame,  with  the 
bearing  of  a  prince.  Born  a  slave  in  1780,  Carey 
worked  for  some  years  in  a  tobacco  factory  in  Rich 
mond,  leading  a  wicked  life.  Converted  in  1807,  he 


THE  NEGRO  CHURCH  159 

made  rapid  advance  in  scholarship,  was  licensed  to 
preach,  organized  the  first  missionary  society  in  the 
country,  and  then  went  himself  as  a  missionary  to  the 
colony  of  Liberia. 

105.  Baptists. — It  is  now  time  to  attempt  to  review 
the  progress  made  by  the  different  religious  denomina 
tions  among  Negroes.  The  Baptists  now  number 
2,500,000.  All  but  a  very  few  are  what  are  known 
as  Regular  Baptists.  These  people  hold  that  as  the 
church  is  a  spiritual  institution,  membership  and 
baptism  should  be  confined  to  believers,  among  whom 
of  course  infants  cannot  be  included.  They  also 
maintain  that  baptism  should  be  by  immersion,  and 
their  doctrine  of  congregational  independence  is  held 
to  render  unnecessary  any  general  creed,  though  it  is 
assumed  that  their  ministers  accept  the  principles  of 
liberty  of  conscience  and  of  the  divine  authority  of 
Scripture.  The  first  state  convention  of  Negro  Bap 
tists  was  organized  in  North  Carolina  in  1866;  others 
soon  followed.  In  1880  the  Negro  Baptists  withdrew 
from  their  white  brethren  in  missionary  enterprises, 
and  organized  in  Montgomery  their  own  national 
convention.  The  most  remarkable  result  of  their 
united  efforts  has  been  the  Home  Mission  work,  in 
cluding  the  National  Baptist  Publishing  Board  in 
Nashville,  which  was  organized  in  1895  and  which  now 
publishes  almost  all  of  the  literature  used  in  Negro 


160    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

Baptist  churches  and  Sunday-schools.  From  Penn 
sylvania  throughout  the  South  weekly  newspapers  are 
published  in  interest  of  the  denomination.  Among 
the  more  prominent  of  these  are  the  Christian  Banner 
in  Philadelphia,  the  Georgia  Baptist  in  Augusta,  Ga., 
and  the  American  Baptist  in  Louisville.  Negro  Bap 
tists,  having  such  a  large  and  varied  membership  as 
they  possess,  are  generally  representative  of  the  ad 
vance  of  Negroes  in  the  United  States.  While  a  great 
many  of  the  most  intelligent  leaders  of  the  race  belong 
to  the  denomination,  much  yet  remains  to  be  done  for 
the  education  of  its  ministry;  and  the  large  influence 
of  the  Baptist  minister  and  his  close  contact  with  the 
masses  make  his  education  of  the  highest  importance 
in  any  consideration  of  questions  relating  to  the  Negro. 
106.  Methodists. — Because  of  some  important  divi 
sions  in  the  church,  the  history  of  the  Methodists  is 
slightly  more  complicated  than  that  of  the  Baptists. 
In  1816  a  number  of  Negroes  under  the  leadership  of 
Richard  Allen  organized  in  Baltimore  the  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  They  withdrew  from 
the  parent  body,  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  in 
order  that  they  might  have  more  freedom  of  action 
among  themselves  than  they  believed  they  could  se 
cure  in  continued  association  with  their  white  breth 
ren.  Allen  became  their  first  bishop.  As  early  as 
1793-4  this  man  had  purchased  a  lot  near  the  corner 


THE  NEGRO  CHURCH  161 

of  Sixth  and  Lombard  streets  in  Philadelphia  for  the 
erection  of  the  first  Negro  Methodist  church  in  the 
country.  "In  doctrine,  government,  and  usage,  this 
church  does  not  differ  from  the  body  from  which  it 
sprang.  It  has  an  itinerant  and  a  local  or  non- 
itinerant  ministry,  and  its  territory  is  divided  into 
annual  conferences."  It  did  not  meet  with  a  large 
measure  of  success  until  the  close  of  the  Civil  War 
made  it  possible  for  it  to  extend  its  activities  into  the 
Southern  states.  Pennsylvania,  however,  was  not  the 
only  state  in  which  Negro  Methodists  revolted  from 
the  parent  organization.  In  1820  a  union  of  churches 
in  and  near  New  York  resulted  in  the  formation  of 
what  is  known  as  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Zion  Church.  The  polity  of  this  organization  is 
slightly  different  from  that  of  the  A.  M.  E.  Church. 
In  it  representation  of  the  laity  has  been  a  prominent 
feature.  "Laymen  are  in  its  annual  conferences  as 
well  as  in  its  general  conferences,  and  there  is  no  bar 
to  the  ordination  of  women."  In  1844,  because  of  the 
increasing  difference  between  the  North  and  the  South 
on  the  subject  of  slavery,  there  was  a  division  in  the 
main  body  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  resulted. 
Considerable  work  for  the  Negroes  was  done  by  this 
latter  organization  before  the  Civil  War,  the  distinct 
ively  Negro  bodies  not  then  being  able  to  advance  in 


162    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

the  South.  When  the  war  was  over,  however,  and  the 
way  was  clear  for  them,  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  observed  a  great  deflection  of  its 
Negro  communicants  to  the  A.  M.  E.  and  the  A.  M. 
E.  Z.  churches.  Accordingly  it  deemed  it  wise  to 
establish  in  1870  its  own  Negro  branch;  and  thus 
came  into  being  the  Colored  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  All  along  a  great  many  Negroes  remained 
in  the  parent  body,  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
whose  missionary  activity,  we  remember,  led  to  the 
formation  of  the  Freedman's  Aid  Society.  Although 
there  are  now  two  other  small  branches  of  Negro 
Methodists,  the  African  Union  Methodist  Protestants 
and  the  Congregational  Methodists,  the  great  major 
ity  of  them  belong  to  the  four  organizations  already 
considered,  the  M.  E.,  A.  M.  E.,  A.  M.  E.  Z.,  and  C. 
M.  E.  churches.  Various  unions  of  these  bodies  have 
from  time  to  time  been  proposed,  but  none  have 
yet  been  effected.  The  combined  membership  of  the 
Methodist  denominations  is  more  than  2,000,000. 
The  A.  M.  E.  Church  is  largest,  having,  with  the  in 
clusion  of  100,000  probationers,  just  about  1,000,000 
members.  Its  organ  is  the  Christian  Recorder  of 
Philadelphia,  the  oldest  Negro  periodical  in  the  United 
States.  This  was  started,  though  under  a  different 
name,  as  early  as  1848.  The  publishing  department  of 
the  church  also  issues  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 


THE  NEGRO  CHURCH  163 

Review,  a  publication  of  about  100  pages.  "The 
African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  however,  is 
chiefly  noteworthy  on  account  of  its  Board  of  Bishops. 
A  board  of  thirteen  men  more  or  less  directly  wield 
the  power  over  750,000  *  American  Negroes,  and 
indirectly  over  two  or  more  millions,  administer 
$10,000,000  worth  of  property  and  an  annual  budget 
of  $500,000.  These  bishops  are  elected  for  life  by  a 
General  Conference  meeting  every  four  years.  To 
gether  the  assembled  bishops  are  perhaps  the  most 
striking  body  of  Negroes  in  the- world  in  personal  ap 
pearance:  men  of  massive  physique,  clear  cut  faces, 
and  undoubted  intelligence."  These  men  have  nat 
urally  been  of  varying  ability,  but  probity  and  in 
telligence  have  always  been  in  the  ascendency,  and 
the  church  has  prospered.  Next  to  the  A.  M.  E. 
Church  stands  the  A.  M.  E.  Zion  Church,  with  about 
700,000  communicants.  This  church  publishes  a 
weekly  paper,  the  Star  of  Zion,  and  a  quarterly,  the 
African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Review.  The  Ne 
groes  in  both  the  M.  E.  and  the  C.  M.  E.  churches 
number  about  250,000.  In  the  M.  E.  Church  there 
has  been  an  insistent  demand  for  a  Negro  bishop ;  but 
although  a  missionary  bishop  to  Africa  has  been  ap 
pointed,  no  Negro  bishop  for  the  church  in  the  United 
States  has  yet  been  appointed. 

*  The  passage  quoted  was  written  eight  years  ago. 


1 64    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

107.  Presbyterians. — We  turn  now  to  the  churches 
whose  Negro  membership  is  small  in  comparison  with 
that  of  the  large  denominations  already  considered. 
The  Presbyterian  Church,   North,  has  contributed 
largely  not  only  to  the  education  of  teachers  and 
preachers,  but  also  toward  the  maintenance  in  their 
work  of  preachers  as  well  as  teachers.    The  result  has 
been  a  ministry  whose  average  of  intelligence  is  high. 
Congregations  have  been  gathered  and  churches  have 
been  organized  until  now  the  Presbyterian  Board  has 
under  its  care  at  least  350  Negro  churches  and  mis 
sions,  with  21,000  members.    On  the  ground,  however, 
that  conversions  are  comparatively  few,  it  has  re 
cently  been  considering  the  advisability  of  curtailing 
its  work.     Also   deserving  of  consideration  is   the 
Negro  branch  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterians,  with 
a  membership  of  about  13,000.    There  is  too  an  Inde 
pendent  African  Presbyterian  Church,  a  branch  from 
the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church. 

108.  Congregationalists. — In     England     and     the 
United  States  the  Congregational  denomination  is 
an  outgrowth  of  Puritanism.     That  it  is  not  widely 
different  in  polity  from  the  Baptist  denomination  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  in  England  in  times  of  oppres 
sion  it  has  always  formed  an  alliance  with  this  body  of 
believers.    Generally  it  emphasizes  two  principles:  the 
independence  of  the  local  church  with  complete  con- 


THE  NEGRO  CHURCH  165 

trol  of  all  its  concerns,  and  the  fellowship  of  inde 
pendent  churches  with  one  another  in  voluntary 
association.  The  denomination  now  numbers  among 
Negroes  something  more  than  13,000,  and  the  mem 
bership  is  generally  very  intelligent. 

109.  Episcopalians  and  Catholics.— "  Although  the 
Episcopal  Church  was  the  first  American  church  to 
receive  Negro  members,  the  growth  of  that  member 
ship  has  been  small.  This  was  the  one  great  Protest 
ant  church  that  did  not  split  on  the  slavery  question, 
and  the  result  is  that  its  Negro  membership  before  and 
since  the  Civil  War  has  been  a  delicate  subject,  and 
the  church  has  probably  done  less  for  black  people 
than  any  other  aggregation  of  Christians."  In  the 
entire  country  to-day  there  are  less  than  a  hundred 
Negro  clergymen  engaged  in  the  work  of  the  church, 
and  there  are  hardly  more  than  15,000  Negro  com 
municants.  Negro  Roman  Catholics  in  the  United 
States  number  altogether  about  150,000.  Neither 
the  Episcopal  nor  the  Catholic  Church  touches  the 
great  body  of  the  Negro  people. 

110.  Summary. — In  even  this  brief  review  of  the 
history  of  the  Negro  Church  it  is  to  be  observed  that 
there  were  early  tendencies  toward  race  segregation. 
Later  on  there  were  tendencies  toward  race  co 
operation,  and  almost  inevitably,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Baptists,  there  was  some  friction  with  white  mission- 


l66     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

ary  societies.  That  the  race  demands  independence 
in  the  management  of  its  church  affairs  may  be  further 
seen  by  the  fact  that  the  richest  church  (the  Episcopal) 
has  almost  the  smallest  number  of  Negro  members, 
not  because  it  does  not  give  to  them,  but  because  it 
does  not  treat  them  as  equals.  Standing  out  in  spe 
cial  prominence  is  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  up  to  the  present  time  the  greatest  single 
achievement  of  the  race  in  organization. 


CHAPTER  XII 

SELF-HELP  IN  NEGRO   EDUCATION* 

111.  The  Beginnings. — As  has  already  been  seen  in 
connection  with  the  matter  of  the  education  of  the 
Negro  before  the  Civil  War,  in  more  than  one  place  in 
what  is  now  the  Middle  West  private  schools  were 
organized  and  supported  by  manumitted  Negroes  who 
had  gone  thither  several  decades  before  the  era  of 
freedom.  In  1838  there  were  in  Philadelphia  thirteen 
private  pay  schools  for  Negroes,  several  of  these  being 
taught  by  Negroes;  and  as  early  as  1835  one  such 
school  was  opened  by  a  Negro  woman  in  New  Orleans. 
Such  efforts  as  these  were  praiseworthy,  but  they  were 
of  course  disconnected  and  frequently  short-lived.  It 
was  in  connection  with  the  churches  that  the  principle 
of  Self-Help  in  Negro  Education  received  the  best 
exemplification.  Most  of  the  first  Negro  schools  were 
fostered  by  the  churches,  and  many  of  the  first  Negro 
teachers  were  also  preachers.  Even  to-day  in  the 
South  church  buildings  are  frequently  used  as  school- 

*  As  stated  in  the  Preface,  this  chapter  is  largely  drawn  from  the 
valuable  pamphlet  by  Dr.  R.  R.  Wright,  Jr.,  published  by  the  Com 
mittee  of  Twelve.  Dr.  Wright  has  very  kindly  consented  that  his 
study  should  be  so  used. 

167 


1 68     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

houses;  and  both  the  Baptists  and  the  Methodists  are 
doing  aggressive  educational  work. 

112.  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Schools.— The 
African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  which  took  the 
lead  among  Negroes  in  educational  work,  began  its 
endeavors  in  this  direction  as  early  as  1844  with  the 
purchase  of  120  acres  of  land  in  Ohio  for  the  Union 
Seminary,  which  was  opened  in  1847.  In  ^56  this 
church  united  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
(North)  in  establishing  in  Greene  County,  Ohio,  Wil- 
berforce  University,  which  in  1863  became  the  sole 
property  of  the  A.  M.  E.  Church.  At  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War  the  ministers  of  this  church  were  sent  to  the 
South  and  were  successful  in  organizing  churches  and 
schools.  To-day  they  maintain  twenty  schools  and 
colleges — one  or  more  in  each  Southern  state,  two  in 
Africa,  and  one  in  the  West  Indies.  These  had  at  last 
accounts  202  teachers,  over  5,700  pupils,  and  school 
property  valued  at  more  than  $1,132,000.  The  latest 
statistics  show  that  Wilberforce  is  still  the  foremost  of 
these  institutions,  and  that  other  prominent  ones  are 
Morris  Brown  College,  Atlanta,  Ga.;  Western  Uni 
versity,  Quindaro,  Kan.;  Allen  University,  Columbia, 
S.  C.;  Paul  Quinn  College,  Waco,  Texas,  and  Kittrell 
College,  Kittrell,  N.  C.  In  a  consideration  of  Self- 
Help  on  the  part  of  Negroes  the  method  of  raising 
money  for  these  schools  is  important.  Each  church 


SELF-HELP  IN   NEGRO  EDUCATION  169 

has  a  local  education  society.  The  third  Sunday  in 
September  is  set  apart  as  Education  Day,  when  a 
general  collection  is  taken  in  all  the  churches.  In  a 
recent  year  this  amounted  altogether  to  a  little  more 
than  $51,000.  Besides  this,  each  member  is  taxed 
eight  cents  a  year  for  the  general  education  fund,  which 
is  reported  at  the  annual  conference.  The  total  in 
come  from  all  sources  for  the  educational  work  of  the 
African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is  not  less  than 
$150,000  a  year. 

113.  Other  Methodist  Institutions. — The  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church  operates  twelve 
institutions,  four  of  which  are  colleges,  one  a  theolog 
ical  school,  and  seven  secondary  schools.  There  are 
150  teachers  with  more  than  3,000  students;  and  in  a 
recent  year  more  than  $100,000  was  raised  by  the 
church  for  educational  work.  The  principal  institution 
is  Livingstone  College,  Salisbury,  N.  C.  The  Colored 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  while  it  does  not  operate 
so  many  schools  as  the  larger  denominations,  in  pro 
portion  to  its  membership  probably  surpasses  all  other 
churches  in  exemplifying  the  principle  of  self-help. 
Its  chief  institutions  are  Lane  College,  Jackson,  Tenn. ; 
Miles  Memorial  College,  Birmingham,  Ala.;  and  the 
Mississippi  Industrial  College,  Holly  Springs,  Miss. 
The  church  also  contributes  to  the  support  of  Paine 
College,  Augusta,  Ga.  The  African  Methodist  Prot- 


170    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

estant  Church  has  three  small  schools.  Negroes  have 
also  contributed  in  large  measure  to  the  support  of 
Methodist  Episcopal  missionary  schools;  but  for  these 
of  course  it  is  impossible  to  arrive  at  definite  statistics. 
114.  Baptist  Schools. — The  educational  work  of 
the  Negro  Baptists  is  still  largely  under  the  control  of 
the  American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society,  which 
owns  and  operates  the  foremost  institutions.  In  recent 
years,  however,  there  has  been  a  widespread  movement 
among  Negro  Baptists  to  do  educational  work  inde 
pendently.  This  has  resulted  in  the  founding  of  a 
large  number  of  schools,  altogether  about  120.  These 
are  of  course  too  many,  and  they  range  in  efficiency 
all  the  way  from  a  fairly  well  established  institution 
like  Selma  University  to  a  school  operated  by  a  small 
association.  These  institutions  are  frequently  forced 
to  take  the  place  of  public  high  schools,  and  almost 
without  exception  they  are  inadequately  equipped. 
Their  rapid  development,  however,  is  indicative  of  the 
spirit  of  self-help.  Where  there  is  such  variety  of 
status,  accurate  statistics  are  impossible;  but  all  these 
schools  taken  together  enroll  about  25,000  students 
and  employ  about  700  teachers.  Prominent  institu 
tions  are:  in  Alabama,  Selma  University;  in  Arkansas, 
Arkansas  Baptist  College  in  Little  Rock;  in  Florida, 
Florida  Baptist  College  in  Jacksonville,  and  Florida 
Institute  in  Live  Oak;  in  Georgia,  Americus  Institute 


SELF-HELP  IN  NEGRO  EDUCATION  171 

in  Americus,  Walker  Baptist  Institute  in  Augusta, 
Jeruel  Academy  in  Athens,  and  Central  City  College 
in  Macon;  in  Kentucky,  State  University  in  Louis 
ville,  and  Eckstein  Norton  University  in  Cave  Springs ; 
in  South  Carolina,  Morris  College  in  Sumter,  and 
Seneca  Institute  in  Seneca;  in  Texas,  Guadaloupe 
College  in  Seguin,  and  Central  Texas  College  in  Waco ; 
in  Tennessee,  Howe  Institute  in  Memphis,  and  the 
new  Roger  Williams  University  in  Nashville;  and  in 
Virginia,  Virginia  Seminary  in  Lynchburg.  As  nearly 
as  can  be  estimated,  the  Negro  Baptists  in  their 
churches  alone  raised  for  their  educational  work  in 
1907  $149,332.75.  Aside  from  the  eight  schools  con 
sidered  in  a  former  chapter,  the  American  Baptist 
Home  Mission  Society  contributes  in  a  smaller  degree 
to  twenty  other  institutions.  The  word  of  the  Asso 
ciate  Corresponding  Secretary  *  of  this  organization 
may  be  taken  as  summing  up  what  the  Negro  Baptists 
have  done  for  themselves:  "We  are  sometimes  told 
that  it  is  about  time  for  the  Negroes  to  do  something 
toward  their  own  education,  and  some  members  of 
our  churches  seem  to  believe  that  their  missionary 
money  boards  and  clothes  the  thousands  of  pupils 
in  attendance  at  the  twenty-eight  schools  of  the  Home 
Mission  Society.  The  following  facts  entirely  re 
fute  these  assertions:  During  the  ten  years  ending 

*  Dr.  C.  L.  White,  in  the  Home  Mission  Monthly,  April,  1909. 


172     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

March  31,  1907,  pupils  paid  for  tuition  $300,517.62; 
for  board  $954,822.01,  and  Negro  churches  and  individ 
uals  gave  for  the  support  of  the  work  or  for  new  build 
ings  to  supplement  the  gifts  of  their  Northern  friends, 
$197,995.70.  This  makes  a  total  of  $i,453>335-33  Paid 
or  given  by  the  Negroes  for  ten  years,  or  $145,333.53 
annually.  It  should  be  remembered  that  this  is  only 
a  small  part  of  the  vastly  larger  amount  contributed 
by  these  people  for  education,  for  all  through  the 
South  many  associations  have  their  own  denomina 
tional  schools,  and  sacrifices  are  made  for  their  main 
tenance  which  reflect  credit  upon  the  race  which  is  so 
rapidly  coming  forward.  The  Negro  presidents  and 
principals  are  showing  unusual  wisdom  in  collecting 
funds  for  their  work.  Negro  churches,  too,  are  taking 
a  great  interest  in  these  mission  schools.  The  gifts 
from  the  Home  Mission  Society  are  hastening  the  day 
of  still  larger  efforts  from  those  benefited." 

115.  Self-Help  in  the  Public  Schools. — As  early  as 
1869  General  Howard  reported  that  the  recently 
emancipated  freedmen  had  in  one  year  raised  for  the 
construction  of  schoolhouses  and  the  support  of 
teachers  not  less  than  $200,000.  Since  1870  common 
school  education  has  been  conducted  chiefly  by  states, 
and  the  Negroes'  contributions  have  been  mainly 
through  taxes,  though  not  exclusively  so.  Though 
there  is  no  authoritative  source  from  which  may  be 


SELF-HELP  IN  NEGRO  EDUCATION  173 

drawn  accurate  conclusions,  it  is  very  probable  that 
the  Negroes  have  paid  for  the  entire  amount  of  public 
school  education  which  they  have  received  from  the 
Southern  states  since  1870.  This  does  not  mean, 
however,  that  the  direct  taxes  on  the  property  of  the 
Negroes  have  been  sufficient  to  pay  for  their  common 
school  education,  for  they  have  not.  But  neither  have 
the  direct  taxes  on  the  property  of  the  white  people 
been  sufficient  to  pay  for  their  common  school  educa 
tion.  In  Georgia,  when  everything  is  considered,  it 
becomes  evident  that  the  Negroes  are  in  no  sense  a 
burden  on  the  white  taxpayers,  and  that  although 
they  pay  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  each  year 
to  white  people  as  rent  for  their  real  estate,  they  do 
not  receive  one  cent  from  the  taxes  on  this  property 
for  their  education.  What  is  true  of  Georgia  is  true  of 
every  other  Southern  state.  In  1889  the  Superin 
tendent  of  Public  Instruction  in  North  Carolina,  ad 
dressing  the  school  officers  of  the  state,  said:  "Do  you 
know,  that  including  the  poll  tax,  which  they  actually 
pay,  fines,  forfeitures,  and  penalties,  the  Negroes 
furnish  a  large  proportion  of  the  money  that  is  ap 
plied  to  their  schools?"  In  1900  the  Superintendent 
of  Education  of  Florida  wrote:  "The  education  of  the 
Negro  of  Middle  Florida  does  not  cost  the  white 
people  of  that  section  one  cent.  The  presence  of  the 
Negro  has  actually  been  contributing  to  the  main- 


174    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

tenance  of  the  white  schools.  The  schools  for  Negroes 
not  only  are  no  burden  upon  the  white  citizens,  but 
$4,527.00  contributed  for  Negro  schools  from  other 
sources  was  in  some  way  diverted  to  the  white  schools." 
As  late  as  1904  moreover,  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  Joyner  of  North  Carolina  showed  in  his 
annual  report  that  the  Negroes  were  "in  no  danger  of 
being  given  more  than  they  were  entitled  to  by  every 
dictate  of  justice,  right,  wisdom,  humanity,  and 
Christianity." 

116.  Negro  Philanthropy. — The  Negro  race  is  yet 
poor.  Already,  however,  there  have  been  many  in 
dividuals  who  have  given  considerable  sums  to  educa 
tion.  Only  a  few,  however,  can  be  mentioned.  Bishop 
Payne  gave  several  thousand  dollars  to  Wilberforce, 
and  Wheeling  Gant  gave  $5,000.  From  the  estate  of 
Mary  E.  Shaw  Tuskegee  received  $38,000.  In  Balti 
more  Nancy  Addison  left  $15,000  and  Louis  Bode 
$30,000  to  the  Community  of  Oblate  Sisters  of  Provi 
dence.  George  Washington,  of  Jersey ville,  111.,  a 
former  slave,  left  $15,000  for  the  education  of  Negroes. 
There  have  been  two  gifts  to  education,  however,  that 
are  remarkable  because  they  were  unusually  large  and 
because  they  were  made  by  Negroes  of  whom  the 
world  at  large  knew  but  little  until  the  time  of  their 
death.  Thorny  Lafon,  of  New  Orleans,  left  $413,000 
to  charitable  and  educational  institutions  in  that  city, 


SELF-HELP  IN  NEGRO  EDUCATION  175 

without  distinction  of  color;  and  Col.  John  McKee,  of 
Philadelphia,  who  died  in  1902,  left  about  a  million 
dollars  in  real  estate  for  education. 

117.  Negro  Teachers. — The  first  teachers  of  the 
Negroes  were  almost  all  white  people.  In  1867  the 
Freedmen's  Bureau  reported  1,056  Negro  teachers, 
and  in  1870  1,324.  In  1908  nearly  all  the  public 
schools  for  Negroes  in  the  South  were  in  the  hands  of 
Negro  teachers,  the  great  majority  of  whom  were 
graduates  of  normal  or  high  school  courses  in  mission 
ary  institutions.  In  the  colleges,  as  Negroes  have 
become  more  and  more  efficient,  the  tendency  has 
been  to  give  them  larger  and  larger  responsibilities. 
In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  the  Senior  Secre 
tary  having  charge  of  the  schools  of  the  Freedman's 
Aid  Society  is  a  Negro,  and  his  organization  has  in 
recent  years  appointed  several  Negroes  to  the  presi 
dency  of  important  schools.  Six  years  ago  the  Amer 
ican  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society  made  the  de 
parture  of  promoting  a  Negro  to  the  presidency  of  one 
of  its  chief  institutions,  Atlanta  Baptist  College;  and 
more  recently  it  has  pursued  a  similar  policy  in  the  case 
of  Jackson  College.  In  Biddle  University,  the  larg 
est  school  of  the  Presbyterians,  and  St.  Augustine's, 
the  principal  school  of  the  Episcopalians,  Negro  men 
have  succeeded  white  men  in  the  conduct  of  affairs. 
The  schools  of  the  American  Missionary  Association 


1 76     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

have  sometimes  drawn  their  professors  from  the 
graduates  of  Negro  institutions;  but  this  organiza 
tion  has  not  yet  followed  the  other  large  missionary 
societies  in  appointing  a  Negro  to  the  presidency  of 
one  of  its  leading  colleges.  The  A.  M.  E.  and  A.  M.  E. 
Zion  schools  have  of  course  had  Negro  teachers  all 
along;  and  Howard  University  has  also  had  Negroes 
in  important  places  since  the  beginning. 

118.  Conclusions. — Following  Dr.  Wright  we  may 
make  the  following  observations: 

1 .  It  is  probably  true  that  the  Negroes  pay  a  larger 
percentage  of  the  cost  of  their  schools  than  any  other 
group  of  poor  people  in  America. 

2.  The  Negroes  have  paid  in  direct  property  and 
poll-taxes  more  than  $45,000,000  during  the  past  forty 
years. 

3.  The  Negroes  have  contributed  at  least  $16,000,000 
to  education  through  their  churches. 

4.  The  Negro  student  probably  pays  a  larger  per 
centage  of  the  running  expenses  of  the  institutions 
which  he  attends  than  any  other  student  in  the  land. 

5.  A  single  generation  has  produced  30,000  teachers, 
20,000  ministers,  200  newspapers  and  magazines  and 
other  agencies  of  self-help. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

DISFRANCHISEMENT 

119.  Negro  Suffrage  before  the  Civil  War.— At  the 

time  of  the  making  of  the  Constitution,  free  Negroes 
could  become  voters  in  every  one  of  the  thirteen  states 
except  South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  Delaware,  by  an 
act  of  1792,  was  the  first  one  of  the  other  states  to 
discriminate  against  Negroes  in  the  suffrage.  The 
other  middle  states  gradually  followed  her  example, 
and  even  Connecticut  in  1814  did  likewise.  Disquali 
fication  had  advanced  so  far  at  the  time  of  the  Civil 
War  that  "  things  had  come  to  the  point  where  Ne 
groes  could  vote  only  in  five  New  England  states,  and 
(under  special  restrictions)  in  New  York."  * 

120.  The  Sequel  of  Reconstruction. — We  have  seen 
how  the  results  of  the  Civil  War  were  summed  up  in 
the  Thirteenth  Amendment,  which  abolished  slavery, 
in  the  Fourteenth,  which  conferred  citizenship  on  the 
former  slaves,  and  in  the  Fifteenth,  which  protected 
them  in  the  right  to  vote.    Whatever  may  have  been 
the  faults  of  the  reconstruction  era,  such  was  the 

*  Hart. 
177 


178    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

lack  of  opportunity  for  education  that  the  freedmen 
had  possessed,  and  such  was  the  complexity  of  issues 
raised  in  the  period,  that  "the  speedy  breaking  up  of 
Negro  suffrage  practically  left  little  time  for  any  com 
plete  proof  as  to  the  capacity  or  discretion  of  the 
Negro."  Nevertheless  the  South  decided  very  soon 
not  to  try  the  experiment  again  if  it  could  keep  from 
doing  so.  In  the  decade  1870-1880  intimidation; 
theft,  suppression,  or  exchange  of  the  ballot  boxes; 
removal  of  the  polls  to  unknown  places;  false  certifi 
cations;  and  illegal  arrests  on  the  day  before  an  elec 
tion  were  the  chief  means  used  by  the  South  to  make 
the  Negro  vote  of  little  effect.  Soon  the  Republican 
party  in  the  South  declined,  and  after  a  while  the 
Democrats  refused  to  admit  Negroes  to  their  pri 
maries.  Generally  after  1871  the  Negro  vote  was  in 
one  way  or  another  rendered  ineffectual  in  every  state 
in  the  South.  A  single  noteworthy  exception  occurred 
when  in  North  Carolina  a  fusion  of  Republicans  and 
Populists  sent  a  Negro,  George  H.  White,  to  Congress, 
defeating  and  alarming  the  Democrats.  This  incident, 
however,  served  only  to  strengthen  the  movement  for 
disfranchisement  which  had  already  begun. 

121.  Progress  of  Disfranchisement. — However  sup 
pressed  the  Negro's  vote  may  have  been  in  actual 
practice,  not  until  1890  was  he  disfranchised  in  any 

*  Hart. 


DISFRANCHISEMENT  179 

state  by  direct  legislation.  In  this  year  the  Constitu 
tion  of  Mississippi  was  so  amended  as  to  exclude  from 
the  suffrage  any  person  who  had  not  paid  his  poll-tax 
or  who  was  unable  to  read  any  section  of  the  Constitu 
tion,  or  understand  it  when  read  to  him,  or  to  give  a 
reasonable  interpretation  of  it.  The  effect  of  the 
administration  of  this  provision  was  the  exclusion  of 
the  great  majority  of  the  Negroes.  South  Carolina 
amended  her  constitution  with  similar  effect  in  1895. 
In  1898  Louisiana  passed  an  amendment  inventing  the 
so-called  "grandfather  clause."  This  excused  from 
the  operation  of  her  disfranchising  act  all  descendants 
of  men  who  had  voted  before  the  Civil  War,  thus  ad 
mitting  to  the  suffrage  all  white  men  who  were  il 
literate  and  without  property.  I  "North  Carolina  in 
1900,  Virginia  and  Alabama  in  1901,  Georgia  in  1907, 
and  Oklahoma  in  1910  in  one  way  or  another  prac 
tically  disfranchised  the  Negro,  care  being  taken  in 
every  instance  to  avoid  any  flagrant  violation  of  the 
Fifteenth  Amendmentj  In  Maryland  there  have  been 
three  distinct  efforts  to  disfranchise  the  Negro  by  con 
stitutional  amendments,  one  in  1905,  another  in  1909, 
and  the  last  in  1911,  all  failing  by  large  majorities. 

122.  Summary  of  the  Legislation. — However  much 
they  may  have  differed  in  detail,  the  disfranchising 
acts  "had  three  points  in  common:  (a)  Some  device 
enabling  all  the  white  voters  to  evade  the  force  of  the 


180    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

disfranchising  clauses;  (b)  The  limiting  clauses  them 
selves  which  deprive  a  majority  of  the  colored  voters 
of  their  franchise ;  (c)  The  reservation  of  sufficient  dis 
cretionary  power  in  boards  of  registrars  to  enable  them 
to  give  full  effect  to  the  acknowledged  purpose  of  the 
framers  of  the  [new  or,  amended]  constitutions."  In 
six  of  the  disfranchising  states — Louisiana,  North 
Carolina,  Alabama,  Virginia,  Georgia,  and  Okla 
homa — the  suffrage  limitations  are  more  narrowly  re 
stricted  by  the  "  grandfather  clause,"  which  gives  ex 
emption  from  the  restrictions  to  soldiers  and  their  sons 
and  grandsons  (Louisiana);  to  persons  who  had  a 
right  to  vote  prior  to  1867  and  to  their  lineal  de 
scendants  (North  Carolina);  to  soldiers  and  their 
lawful  descendants  (Alabama) ;  to  soldiers  and  sailors 
who  served  in  time  of  war  prior  to  1902  and  to  their 
sons  (Virginia);  to  soldiers  and  their  descendants 
(Georgia).  The  word  soldier  has  of  course  practical 
reference  to  those  who  fought  in  the  Confederate 
army  in  the  Civil  War.  Only  those  who  should  register 
prior  to  December  31,  1898,  in  Louisiana;  to  Decem 
ber  i,  1908,  in  North  Carolina;  to  January  i,  1903,  in 
Alabama;  to  December  31,  1903,  in  Virginia;  and  to 
the  year  1911  in  Georgia,  and  who  had  paid  their  poll- 
taxes  regularly  could  claim  the  benefit  of  exemption. 
"  Under  the  permanent  registration  provisions,  educa- 

*  Charles  C.  Cook,  in  The  Negro  and  the  Elective  Franchise,  20. 


DISFRA  NCHISEMEN  T  1 8 1 

tional  qualifications  are  fixed  for  those  without  prop 
erty,  and  property  qualifications  are  prescribed  in  the 
case  of  illiterates.  Thus  the  Alabama  constitution 
admitted  to  the  suffrage  those  owning  at  least  forty 
acres  of  land,  or  real  and  personal  property  assessed  at 
a  valuation  of  at  least  $300."  *  The  disfranchising 
amendment  to  the  constitution  of  the  state  of  Georgia 
is  fairly  typical  of  some  of  the  more  specific  provisions 
of  the  disfranchising  acts.  In  this  state  any  male 
person  of  legal  age  who  has  paid  his  poll-tax  may 
register  and  vote  if  he  can  read  accurately  or  write 
accurately  a  paragraph  of  the  state  constitution  that 
may  be  read  to  him.  Any  person  owning  or  paying 
taxes  on  $500  worth  of  property  may  register  and 
vote  whether  literate  or  illiterate.  The  provision  that 
really  eliminates  the  Negro  is  the  one  so  common  in 
the  disfranchising  amendments  to  the  effect  that  the 
registrars  may  use  their  discretion  in  admitting  any 
candidate  for  registration  who  is  of  good  character 
and  who  understands  the  duties  of  citizenship. 
*  Nelson's  Encyclopedia,  Article  Disfranchisement. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE   NEGRO   AS   A   SOLDIER 

123.  General  Tribute.— The  tributes  that  have  been 
paid  to  the  courage  and  valor  of  the  Negro  American 
soldier  are  many.  The  best  of  these  is  probably  the 
address  of  Dr.  Booker  T.  Washington  at  the  Chicago 
Peace  Jubilee,  October  16,  1898,  of  which  a  Chicago 
newspaper  said  that  it  contained  one  of  the  most  elo 
quent  tributes  ever  paid  to  the  loyalty  and  valor  of 
the  colored  race,  and  at  the  same  time  was  one  of  the 
most  powerful  appeals  for  justice  to  a  race  which  has 
always  chosen  the  better  part.  As  generally  repre 
sentative  of  what  has  been  said,  we  may  accept  the 
words  of  a  correspondent  of  the  Atlanta  Journal  writ 
ten  near  the  end  of  July,  1898,  with  reference  to  the 
conduct  of  Negroes  in  the  Spanish- American  War: 
"  Physically  the  colored  troops  are  the  best  men  in  the 
army,  especially  the  men  in  the  Ninth  and  Tenth 
Cavalry.  Every  one  of  them  is  a  giant.  The  Negroes 
in  the  Twenty-fourth  and  Twenty-fifth  Infantry,  too, 
are  all  big  fellows.  .  .  .  The  Negroes  seemed  to  be 
absolutely  without  fear,  and  certainly  no  troops  ad- 

182 


THE  NEGRO  AS  A  SOLDIER  183 

vanced  more  promptly  when  the  order  was  given  than 
they." 

124.  Heroism  in   the   Revolutionary   War. — It  is 

impossible  within  our  limits  to  take  note  of  all  the 
Negroes  who  have  in  one  way  or  another  especially 
distinguished  themselves  in  the  wars  of  the  United 
States.  Only  the  foremost  figures  can  receive  atten 
tion.  On  March  5,  1770,  occurred  the  Boston  Mas 
sacre,  occasioned  by  the  conduct  of  some  British 
soldiers  who  were  arrogantly  marching  through  State 
Street.  An  attack  of  some  citizens  upon  these  soldiers 
was  led  by  Crispus  Attucks,  a  runaway  slave,  who  was 
a  very  tall  and  commanding  figure.  When  the  English 
troops  fired,  Attucks  and  three  of  the  citizens  were 
killed,  the  Negro  being  the  first  man  to  die.  The 
Attucks  Monument  on  Boston  Common  commem 
orates  the  deed.  At  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  when 
Major  Pitcairn  of  the  British  army  was  exulting  in  his 
expected  triumph,  Peter  Salem,  a  Negro,  rushed  for 
ward,  shot  him  in  the  breast,  and  killed  him.  When 
Colonel  Barton  of  the  American  army  undertook  to 
capture  General  Prescott  while  the  royal  army  was 
stationed  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  his  chief  assistant — the 
man  who  really  captured  Prescott  in  bed — was  a  Negro 
named  Prince. 

125.  The  War  of  1812.— In  the  War  of  1812  "New 
York   authorized   the   raising   of   two   regiments   of 


1 84    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

'freedmen  of  color' — to  receive  the  same  pay  and 
allowance  as  whites — and  provided  that  'any  able- 
bodied  slave'  might  enlist  therein  'with  the  written 
consent  of  his  master  or  mistress,'  who  was  to  receive 
his  pay  aforesaid,  while  the  Negro  received  his  free 
dom,  being  manumitted  at  the  time  of  his  honorable 
discharge."  *  While  General  Andrew  Jackson  was 
in  command  at  Mobile,  some  American  troops  that 
had  charged  the  British  were  retreating  in  disorder 
when  a  Negro  named  Jeffreys  saved  the  day  by  placing 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  troops  and  rallying  them  to 
the  charge.  In  preparing  for  the  defense  of  New 
Orleans,  Jackson  called  on  the  Negroes  for  assistance, 
and  on  December  i8th  he  addressed  to  them  words  of 
commendation,  in  part  as  follows:  "Soldiers:  From  the 
shores  of  Mobile  I  collected  you  to  arms.  I  invited 
you  to  share  in  the  perils  and  to  divide  the  glory  with 
your  white  countrymen.  I  expected  much  from  you, 
for  I  was  not  uninformed  of  those  qualities  which  must 
render  you  so  formidable  to  an  invading  foe.  I  knew 
that  you  could  endure  hunger  and  thirst  and  all  the 
hardships  of  war.  I  knew  that  you  loved  the  land  of 
your  nativity,  and  that,  like  ourselves,  you  had  to 
defend  all  that  is  most  dear  to  man.  But  you  have 
surpassed  all  my  hopes.  I  have  found  in  you,  united 
to  these  qualities,  that  noble  enthusiasm  which  impels 

*  Alexander,  333. 


THE  NEGRO  AS  A  SOLDIER  185 

to  great  deeds."  The  Negroes  were  especially  dis 
tinguished  for  their  conduct  at  the  Battle  of  New 
Orleans.  About  four  hundred  were  in  the  engagement, 
and  one  of  them  gave  Jackson  the  suggestion  for 
his  famous  cotton  breastworks.  The  conduct  of  the 
Negro  in  the  navy  may  be  seen  from  the  statement  by 
Commodore  Chauncey  in  a  letter  to  Captain  Perry  to 
the  effect  that  he  had  fifty  Negroes  on  his  ship  and 
that  they  were  among  his  best  men. 

126.  Heroism  in  the  Civil  War.-—In  the  Civil  War 
the  Negro  troops  were  especially  distinguished  for  their 
heroism  at  Port  Hudson,  Fort  Wagner,  Fort  Pillow, 
and  around  Petersburg.  Some  important  operations 
culminated  on  July  8,  1863,  in  the  capture  of  the 
Confederate  batteries  at  Port  Hudson,  a  small  village 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River,  about  135 
miles  above  New  Orleans.  A  Negro  regiment  under 
Colonel  Nelson  was  prominent  in  the  operations  of 
the  siege  on  May  27th.  To  it  was  assigned  the  task 
of  taking  an  almost  impregnable  fort.  The  Negro 
soldiers  could  not  possibly  succeed,  because  a  bayou 
that  they  had  to  cross  was  too  deep ;  still  they  made 
seven  desperate  charges,  for  this  was  one  of  their 
very  first  opportunities  in  the  war  and  their  valor  was 
being  tested.  Said  the  New  York  Times  of  the  battle: 
"  General  Dwight,  at  least,  must  have  had  the  idea 
not  only  that  they  (the  Negro  troops)  were  men,  but 


1 86    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

something  more  than  men,  from  the  terrific  test  to 
which  he  put  their  valor.  .  .  .  Their  colors  are  torn 
to  pieces  by  shot,  and  literally  bespattered  by  blood 
and  brains.  ...  One  black  lieutenant  actually 
mounted  the  enemy's  works  three  or  four  times,  and 
in  one  charge  the  assaulting  party  came  within  fifty 
paces  of  them."  This  was  the  occasion  on  which 
Color-Sergeant  Anselmas  Planciancois  said  before  a 
shell  blew  off  his  head,  "Colonel,  I  will  bring  back 
these  colors  to  you  on  honor,  or  report  to  God  the 
reason  why."  On  June  6th  the  Negroes  again  dis 
tinguished  themselves  and  won  friends  by  their  brav 
ery  at  Milliken's  Bend.  The  54th  Massachusetts, 
commanded  by  Colonel  Robert  Gould  Shaw,  was  con 
spicuous  in  the  attempt  to  take  Fort  Wagner,  on  Mor 
ris  Island  near  Charleston,  July  18,  1863.  The  regi 
ment  had  marched  two  days  and  two  nights  through 
swamps  and  drenching  rains  in  order  to  be  in  time  for 
the  assault.  In  the  engagement  nearly  all  the  officers 
of  the  regiment  were  killed,  among  them  Colonel  Shaw. 
The  picturesque  deed  was  that  of  Sergeant  William 
H.  Carney,  who  seized  the  regiment's  colors  from  the 
hand  of  a  falling  comrade  and  planted  the  flag  on  the 
works,  and  who,  when  borne  bleeding  and  mangled 
off  the  field,  said,  "Boys,  the  old  flag  never  touched 
the  ground."  Fort  Pillow,  a  position  on  the  Missis- 

*  Quoted  from  Williams,  II,  321. 


THE  NEGRO  AS  A  SOLDIER  187 

sippi,  about  fifty  miles  above  Memphis,  was  when 
attacked  April  13,  1864,  garrisoned  by  557  men,  262  of 
whom  were  Negroes.    The  fort  was  taken  by  the  Con 
federates,  but  the  feature  of  the  engagement  was  the 
stubborn  resistance  offered  by  the  Union  troops  in  the 
face  of  great  odds.    In  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  in 
the  Department  of  the  South,  the  Negro  had  now  done 
excellent  work  as  a  soldier.    In  the  spring  of  1864  he 
made  his  appearance  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
Around  Richmond  and  Petersburg  in  July,  1864,  there 
was  considerable  skirmishing  between  the  Federal  and 
the   Confederate    forces.    Burnside,   commanding  a 
corps  composed  partly  of  Negroes,  dug  under  a  Con 
federate  fort  a  trench  a  hundred  and  fifty  yards  long. 
This  was  filled  with  explosives,  and  on  July  3oth  the 
match  was  applied  and  the  famous  crater  formed.  Just 
before  the  explosion  the  Negroes  had  figured  in  a  gallant 
charge  on  the  Confederates.  The  plan  was  to  follow  the 
eruption  by  an  even  more  formidable  charge,  in  which 
Burnside  wanted  to  give  his  Negro  troops  the  lead. 
A  dispute  about  this  and  a  settlement  by  lot  resulted 
in  the  awarding  of  precedence  to  a  New  Hampshire 
regiment.     Said  General  Grant  later  of  the  whole 
unfortunate  episode:  " General  Burnside  wanted  to 
put  his  colored  division  in  front;  I  believe  if  he  had 
done  so  it  would  have  been  a  success."    With  refer 
ence  to  the  Negro  and  his  conduct  at  home  during  the 


i88    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

Civil  War,  no  words  better  sum  up  his  position  than 
those  of  Dr.  Washington:  "  When  the  long  and  memor 
able  struggle  came  between  union  and  separation,  when 
he  knew  that  victory  on  one  hand  meant  freedom, 
and  defeat  on  the  other  his  continued  enslavement, 
with  a  full  knowledge  of  the  portentous  meaning  of  it 
all,  when  the  suggestion  and  temptation  came  to  burn 
the  home  and  massacre  wife  and  children  during  the 
absence  of  the  master  in  battle,  and  thus  insure  his 
liberty,  we  find  him  choosing  the  better  part,  and  for 
four  long  years  protecting  and  supporting  the  help 
less,  defenseless  ones  entrusted  to  his  care." 

127.  The  Spanish-American  War. — There  are  four 
regiments  of  colored  regulars  in  the  army  of  the 
United  States,  the  Twenty-fourth  Infantry,  the 
Twenty-fifth  Infantry,  the  Ninth  Cavalry,  and  the 
Tenth  Cavalry.  These  fought  during  the  last  years 
of  the  Civil  War,  and  entered  the  regular  service  in 
1866.  These  regiments  formed  part  of  the  force  of 
the  Americans  in  the  Santiago  campaign.  Various 
volunteer  companies  were  raised  in  Alabama,  Virginia, 
Illinois,  Indiana,  Kansas,  and  Ohio.  The  eighth  Il 
linois  was  officered  throughout  by  Negroes,  J.  R. 
Marshall  commanding;  and  Brevet-Major  Charles 
E.  Young,  a  West  Point  graduate,  was  in  charge  of 
the  Ohio  battalion.  The  very  first  regiment  ordered 
to  the  front  when  the  war  broke  out  in  1898  was  the 


THE  NEGRO  AS  A  SOLDIER  189 

Twenty-fourth  Infantry;  and  Negro  troops  were  con 
spicuous  in  the  fighting  around  Santiago.  They 
figured  in  a  brilliant  charge  at  Las  Quasimas  on 
June  24th,  and  in  an  attack  on  July  ist  upon  a  garri 
son  at  El  Caney  (a  position  of  importance  for  securing 
possession  of  a  line  of  hills  along  the  San  Juan  River, 
a  mile  and  a  half  from  Santiago)  the  First  Volunteer 
Cavalry  (Colonel  Roosevelt's  " Rough  Riders")  was 
practically  saved  from  annihilation  by  the  gallant 
work  of  the  men  of  the  Tenth  Cavalry.  Fully  as 
patriotic,  though  in  another  way,  was  the  deed  of  the 
Twenty-fourth  Infantry.  A  yellow  fever  hospital 
was  to  be  cleansed  and  some  victims  of  the  disease 
nursed.  Learning  that  General  Miles  desired  a  regi 
ment  for  this  work,  the  Twenty-fourth  volunteered 
its  services.  By  one  day's  work  the  men  had  suc 
ceeded  in  clearing  away  the  rubbish  and  in  so  cleaning 
the  camp  that  the  number  of  cases  was  greatly  re 
duced. 

128.  Brownsville. — In  1906  occurred  an  incident 
affecting  the  Negro  in  the  army  that  received  an  ex 
traordinary  amount  of  attention  in  the  public  press. 
In  August,  1906,  Companies  B,  C,  and  D  of  the 
Twenty-fifth  Regiment  United  States  Infantry  were 
stationed  at  Fort  Brown,  Brownsville,  Texas.  On  the 
night  of  the  i3th  took  place  a  riot  in  which  one  citizen 
of  the  town  was  killed,  another  wounded,  and  the 


igo    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

chief  of  police  injured.  The  people  of  the  town  ac 
cused  the  soldiers  of  causing  the  riot;  and  on  Novem 
ber  gth  President  Roosevelt  dismissed  "without 
honor"  the  entire  battalion,  disqualifying  its  members 
for  service  thereafter  in  either  the  military  or  the  civil 
employ  of  the  United  States.  When  Congress  met  in 
December  Senator  Foraker  of  Ohio  placed  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  critics  of  the  President's  action;  and 
on  January  22nd  the  Senate  authorized  a  general  in 
vestigation  of  the  whole  matter,  a  special  message 
from  the  President  on  the  i4th  having  revoked  the 
civil  disability  of  the  discharged  soldiers.  The  case 
was  finally  disposed  of  by  a  congressional  act  approved 
March  3,  1909.  The  full  text  of  this  important  act 
reads  as  follows: 

"Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress 
assembled,  That  the  Secretary  of  War  is  hereby  au 
thorized  to  appoint  a  court  of  inquiry,  to  consist  of 
five  officers  of  the  United  States  Army,  not  below  the 
rank  of  colonel,  which  court  shall  be  authorized  to 
hear  and  report  upon  all  charges  and  testimony  relat 
ing  to  the  shooting  affray  which  took  place  at  Browns 
ville,  Texas,  on  the  night  of  August  thirteenth- 
fourteenth,  nineteen  hundred  and  six.  Said  court 
shall,  within  one  year  from  the  date  of  its  appoint 
ment,  make  a  final  report,  and  from  time  to  time  shall 
make  partial  reports,  to  the  Secretary  of  War  of  the 


THE  NEGRO  AS  A  SOLDIER  191 

results  of  such  inquiry,  and  such  soldiers  and  non 
commissioned  officers  of  Companies  B,  C,  and  D,  of 
the  Twenty-fifth  Regiment  United  States  Infantry, 
who  were  discharged  from  the  military  service  as 
members  of  said  regiment,  under  the  provisions  of 
Special  Orders,  Numbered  Two  hundred  and  sixty- 
six,  dated  at  the  War  Department  the  ninth  day  of 
November,  nineteen  hundred  and  six,  as  said  court 
shall  find  and  report  as  qualified  for  re-enlistment  in 
the  Army  of  the  United  States  shall  thereby  become 
eligible  for  re-enlistment. 

"Sec.  2.  That  any  noncommissioned  officer  or  pri 
vate  who  shall  be  made  eligible  for  re-enlistment  under 
the  provisions  of  the  preceding  section  shall,  if  re-en 
listed,  be  considered  to  have  re-enlisted  immediately 
after  his  discharge  under  the  provisions  of  the  special 
order  hereinbefore  cited,  and  be  entitled,  from  the 
date  of  his  discharge  under  said  special  order,  to  the 
pay,  allowances,  and  other  rights  and  benefits  that  he 
would  have  been  entitled  to  receive  according  to  his 
rank  from  said  date  of  discharge  as  if  he  had  been 
honorably  discharged  under  the  provisions  of  said 
special  order  and  have  re-enlisted  immediately.'' 


CHAPTER  XV 

NEGRO   ACHIEVEMENT   IN    LITERATURE,    ART,    AND   IN 
VENTION 

129.  Folk-Lore  and  Folk-Music.— In  the  life  and 
history  of  the  Negro  people  there  has  developed  a 
large  tradition  of  interesting  customs,  superstitions, 
and  tales.  Of  the  writers  of  the  race  Charles  W.  Ches- 
nutt  was  the  first  who  fully  appreciated  the  literary 
value  of  this  material;  but  other  writers,  such  as 
Thomas  Nelson  Page  and  George  W.  Cable,  have  also 
found  it  of  great  service.  Its  chief  literary  monument 
so  far  has  been  in  the  Uncle  Remus  tales  told  by 
Joel  Chandler  Harris.  Important  as  is  Negro  folk 
lore,  however,  the  folk-music  of  the  race  is  still  more 
SO.  Negro  music  in  America  is  especially  interesting 
because  it  is  not  only  the  voice  of  an  uncivilized  peo 
ple  in  Africa,  but  also  a  highly  developed  folk-music. 
Dr.  DuBois  distinguishes  four  steps  in  its  development. 
The  first  stage  exhibits  native  African  music,  and  may 
be  seen  in  such  a  chant  as  that  for  the  words,  "You 
may  bury  me  in  the  East; "  the  second  is  that  of  Afro- 
American  music,  the  great  class,  "  Steal  away  to 
Jesus"  being  an  example;  the  third  stage  shows  a 

192 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  193 

blending  of  Negro  music  with  that  of  the  foster-land, 
as  in  "Bright  Sparkles  in  the  Churchyard ;"  the  fourth 
shows  American  melodies  affected  by  the  Negro 
music,  as  in  the  songs  of  Stephen  Collins  Foster.  An 
other  division  of  the  melodies  makes  two  classes  of 
them,  those  which  are  the  spontaneous  expression  of 
the  Negro's  own  feelings,  and  those  which,  while  now 
essentially  Negro  in  character,  show  some  evidence 
of  foreign  origin.  In  the  second  group  may  be  seen 
traces  of  European  songs  and  dances,  and  adaptations 
of  Baptist  and  Methodist  hymns.  Those  songs  which 
are  altogether  original  are  generally  religious  in  tone 
and  most  often  sorrowful.  Typical  ones  are  "My 
Lord,  what  a  Morning"  and  "Nobody  knows  de 
trouble  I've  seen."  Sometimes  however  the  note  of 
triumph  sounds  with  tremendous  force,  as  in  "Oh, 
give  way,  Jordan,"  "In  dat  great  gittin'-up  mornin'," 
and  "Oh,  den  my  little  soul's  gwine  to  shine."  No 
one  is  yet  able  to  say  just  how  many  of  these  melodies 
are  in  existence,  for  they  have  not  all  been  collected. 
Unlike  the  English  and  Scottish  popular  ballads,  they 
depend  for  their  merit  vastly  more  upon  their  tunes 
than  upon  their  words.  They  are  also  more  affected 
by  nature  than  are  the  ballads.  A  meteoric  shower,  a 
thunder-storm,  or  the  dampness  of  a  furrow  was  suffi 
cient  to  give  birth  to  a  hymn,  and  the  freest  possible 
use  was  made  of  figures  of  speech.  As  in  the  ballads, 


194    ^  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

the  sentiment  of  the  individual  becomes  universal; 
and  there  is  a  strong  tendency  toward  repetition.  The 
time-structure  of  the  melodies  has  frequently  aston 
ished  musicians  by  its  accuracy;  but  in  recent  years 
there  has  been  a  decided  tendency  toward  debasement. 
"  Ragtime  "  depends  for  its  effect  upon  an  exaggeration 
of  the  "rhythmical  snap"  that  is  so  prominent  in 
Negro  music,  and  upon  an  excessive  use  of  syncopa 
tion.  The  distinction  between  " ragtime"  and  the 
pure  "spirituals"  should  be  insisted  upon,  however, 
and  more  and  more  should  the  current  debasement  of 
Negro  music  be  discouraged. 

130.  Phillis  Wheatley.— The  first  Negro  to  achieve 
distinction  in  literature  in  America  was  Phillis  Wheat- 
ley.  This  young  woman  was  born  in  Africa,  in  Sene 
gal,  in  1753  or  1754.  When  she  was  brought  to 
America  in  1761  she  was  bought  for  Mrs.  Susannah 
Wheatley,  wife  of  John  Wheatley,  a  tailor,  who  de 
sired  to  have  a  special  servant  for  her  declining  years. 
The  bright  mind  and  delicate  figure  of  the  child  soon 
distinguished  her  from  the  other  slaves  of  the  house 
hold;  and  with  the  assistance  of  Mary  Wheatley, 
the  daughter  of  the  family,  Phillis  learned  to  read. 
Within  sixteen  months  from  the  time  of  her  arrival 
in  Boston  she  was  able  to  read  fluently  the  most 
difficult  parts  of  the  Bible;  and  gradually  she  came  to 
be  looked  upon  by  Mrs.  Wheatley  as  a  daughter  or 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  195 

companion  rather  than  a  slave.  In  course  of  time  the 
learning  of  the  young  student  came  to  consist  of  a 
little  astronomy,  some  geography,  a  little  ancient 
history,  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  Bible,  and  a  thorough 
and  appreciative  acquaintance  with  the  most  im 
portant  Latin  classics.  Even  these  modest  attain 
ments  were  most  rare  for  an  American  woman  of  the 
period.  Phillis  soon  turned  her  attention  to  the  com 
position  of  verses,  using  Pope's  Homer  as  her  model; 
and,  as  one  critic  has  said,  she  "became  a  kind  of  poet 
laureate  in  the  domestic  circles  of  Boston."  Not  only 
did  the  gracious  demeanor  of  the  girl  single  her  out 
for  special  favors  at  the  hands  of  Mrs.  Wheatley's 
friends;  at  the  age  of  sixteen  she  became  a  member  of 
the  congregation  of  the  Old  South  Meeting  House, 
being  the  first  slave  to  be  admitted  into  that  body. 
In  1773,  after  formal  manumission,  she  went  to  Eng 
land  under  the  care  of  Nathaniel  Wheatley,  the  son  of 
the  family,  the  thought  being  that  the  air  of  the  sea 
would  improve  her  health.  While  abroad  she  was 
under  the  special  patronage  of  the  Countess  of  Hunt 
ingdon,  to  whom  a  poem  on  the  death  of  George 
Whitefield,  the  former  chaplain  of  this  lady,  had  in 
troduced  her.  By  her  wit  and  modesty  she  made 
many  friends  abroad;  presents  were  showered  upon 
her,  Brook  Watson,  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  giving 
her  a  copy  of  a  magnificent  folio  edition  of  Paradise 


196    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

Lost,  which  is  now  in  the  library  of  Harvard  College. 
While  she  was  in  England  arrangements  were  made 
for  the  publication  of  her  volume  of  verses,  Poems  on 
Various  Subjects.  The  illness  of  her  old  friend,  Mrs. 
Wheatley,  caused  her  to  hasten  her  return  to  America. 
Mrs.  Wheatley  died  in  1774,  and  her  husband  in  1778. 
The  daughter  of  the  family,  who  had  married  and  left 
the  old  home,  also  died  in  1778.  Nathaniel  Wheatley 
was  living  abroad.  In  her  loneliness  Phillis  listened 
to  the  voice  of  John  Peters,  a  ne'er-do-well  variously 
reported  to  have  been  a  baker,  a  barber,  a  grocer,  a 
doctor,  and  a  lawyer.  She  was  married  in  April,  1778. 
Hard  times  now  came  to  her,  and  her  health  declined. 
At  last  she  was  compelled  to  accept  work  as  a  drudge 
in  a  cheap  boarding-house.  She  became  the  mother 
of  three  children.  Two  died  before  her,  and  her  last 
baby  slept  with  its  mother  in  death  December  5,  1784. 
Phillis  Wheatley's  collection,  Poems  on  Various 
Subjects,  contains  thirty-nine  titles.  Fourteen  of  the 
thirty-eight  original  pieces  are  elegiac  and  not  at  all 
remarkable  for  poetic  merit;  at  least  six  others  may 
be  classed  as  occasional;  and  two  are  mere  paraphrases 
of  portions  of  the  Bible.  We  are  thus  left  with  sixteen 
poems  which  permit  us  to  judge  of  the  ability  of 
Phillis  Wheatley.  Let  us  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that 
all  these  pieces  were  written  by  a  girl  not  yet  twenty 
years  old.  The  masterpiece  is  undoubtedly  On  I  mag- 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  197 

ination,  lines  suffused  with  true  poetic  feeling.  Several 
other  poems  are  of  interest  for  different  reasons.  On 
Being  Brought  from  Africa  to  America  consists  of  eight 
childish  but  sincere  lines.  On  Virtue  is  the  remarkable 
utterance  of  a  pious,  but  fatherless  and  motherless, 
child.  To  S.  M.j  a  Young  African  Painter,  on  Seeing 
his  Works  was  addressed  to  Scipio  Moorhead,  a  young 
Negro  who  had  evidently  some  talent  for  painting, 
and  one  of  whose  pictures  (one  infers  from  the  poem) 
dealt  with  the  story  of  Damon  and  Pythias. 

The  form  of  the  verses  shows  decided  imitation  of 
Alexander  Pope.  The  heroic  couplet  swings  through 
all  except  two  or  three  of  the  poems.  The  diction  also 
is  pseudo-classic.  The  earnestness  of  the  work,  how 
ever,  is  one  of  its  strong  assets.  Phillis  Wheatley  is 
intensely  serious  and  pious.  She  never  intends  to  be 
humorous,  and  when  in  To  the  University  of  Cambridge, 
in  New  England  the  young  girl  of  nineteen  gives  advice 
to  the  students  at  Harvard,  it  is  not  because  she  so 
intends  that  she  provokes  a  smile. 

As  a  woman  Phillis  Wheatley  was  eminently  noble. 
Hers  was  a  great  soul.  Her  ambition  knew  no  bounds, 
her  thirst  for  knowledge  was  insatiable,  and  she 
triumphed  over  the  most  adverse  circumstances.  A 
child  of  the  wilderness  and  a  slave,  by  her  grace  and 
culture  she  satisfied  the  conventionalities  of  Boston 
and  of  London.  Her  brilliant  conversation  was 


198   A   SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

equalled  only  by  her  modest  demeanor.  Everything 
about  her  was  refined:  her  figure  was  delicately 
moulded;  her  handwriting  was  plain  and  neat.  More 
and  more  as  one  studies  her  life  he  becomes  aware  of 
her  sterling  Christian  character;  and  it  was  meet  that 
the  first  Negro  woman  in  American  literature  should 
be  one  of  unerring  piety  and  unbending  virtue. 

131.  Paul  Laurence  Dunbar. — Dunbar  was  born 
June  27,  1872,  in  Dayton,  Ohio.  When  he  attended 
the  Steele  High  School  in  Dayton  he  edited  The  High 
School  Times,  a  monthly  student  publication,  and 
when  he  graduated  from  the  school  in  1891  he  com 
posed  the  song  for  his  class.  After  vain  seeking  for 
something  better,  he  accepted  a  position  as  elevator 
boy,  working  for  $4  a  week.  In  1893,  at  the  World's 
Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago,  he  was  given  a 
position  by  Frederick  Douglass,  who  was  in  charge  of 
the  exhibit  from  Hayti.  Gradually,  with  the  assistance 
of  friends,  chief  among  whom  was  Dr.  H.  A.  Tobey,  of 
Toledo,  the  young  poet  came  into  notice  as  a  reader  of 
his  verses.  Oak  and  Ivy  appeared  in  1893,  an<^  Majors 
and  Minors  in  the  winter  of  1895-6.  William  Dean 
Howells,  whose  attention  had  been  called  to  the 
poet's  work,  wrote  a  full-page  review  of  it  in  the  issue 
of  Harper's  Weekly  that  contained  an  account  of  Wil 
liam  McKinley's  first  nomination  for  the  presidency. 
Dunbar  was  now  fairly  launched  upon  his  larger  fame, 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  IQ9 

and  Lyrics  of  Lowly  Life,  published  by  Dodd,  Mead  & 
Co.  in  1896,  introduced  him  to  the  wider  reading 
public.  This  book  is  deservedly  the  poet's  best 
known.  It  contained  the  best  work  of  his  youth,  and 
was  really  never  surpassed.  In  1897  Dunbar  enhanced 
his  reputation  as  a  reader  of  his  own  poems  by  a  visit 
to  England.  About  this  time  he  was  very  busy,  writ 
ing  numerous  poems  and  magazine  articles,  and  meet 
ing  with  a  success  that  was  so  much  greater  than  that 
of  most  of  the  versifiers  of  the  day  that  it  became  a 
vogue.  In  October,  1897,  through  the  influence  of 
Robert  G.  Ingersoll,  he  secured  employment  as  an 
assistant  in  the  Reading  Room  of  the  Library  of  Con 
gress,  Washington.  He  gave  up  this  position  after  a 
year  however,  for  the  confinement  and  his  late  work 
at  night  on  his  own  account  were  making  rapid  inroads 
upon  his  health.  On  March  6,  1898,  Dunbar  was 
married  to  Alice  Ruth  Moore,  of  New  Orleans.  Early 
in  1899  he  went  South,  visiting  Tuskegee  and  other 
schools,  and  giving  many  readings.  Later  in  the  same 
year  he  went  to  Colorado  in  a  vain  search  for  health. 
Books  were  now  appearing  in  rapid  succession,  short 
story  collections  and  novels  as  well  as  poems.  The 
Uncalled,  written  in  London,  reflected  the  poet's 
thought  of  entering  the  ministry.  It  was  followed  by 
The  Love  of  Landry,  a  Colorado  story,  and  The  Fa 
natics.  Collections  of  short  stories  were  Folks  from 


200    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

Dixie,  The  Strength  of  Gideon,  In  Old  Plantation  Days, 
and  The  Sport  of  the  Gods.  Volumes  of  verse  were 
Lyrics  of  the  Hearthside,  Lyrics  of  Love  and  Laughter, 
Poems  of  Cabin  and  Field,  When  Malindy  Sings, 
Candle-Lightin'  Time,  and  Howdy,  Honsy,  Howdy,  the 
last  four  being  for  the  most  part  profusely  illustrated 
editions  of  earlier  work.  The  poet's  last  years  were  a 
record  of  sincere  friendships  and  a  losing  fight  against 
disease.  He  died  February  9,  1906.  He  was  only 
thirty-three,  but  he  "had  existed  millions  of  years." 

Unless  the  novels  are  considered  as  forming  a  dis 
tinct  class,  Dunbar's  work  falls  naturally  into  three 
divisions:  the  poems  in  classic  English,  those  in  dialect, 
and  the  stories  in  prose.  While  all  his  work  is  re 
markably  even,  it  was  his  verse  in  the  Negro  dialect 
that  was  his  distinct  contribution  to  American  liter 
ature.  That  it  was  not  his  desire  that  this  should  be 
so  may  be  seen  from  the  eight  lines  entitled  The  Poet, 
in  which  he  longed  for  success  in  the  singing  of  his 
" deeper  notes"  and  spoke  of  his  dialect  as  "a  jingle 
in  a  broken  tongue."  Any  criticism  of  Dunbar's 
English  verse  will  have  to  reckon  with  the  following 
poems:  Ere  Sleep  Comes  Down  to  Soothe  the  Weary 
Eyes,  The  Poet  and  his  Song,  Life,  Promise  and  Fulfil 
ment,  Ships  that  Pass  in  the  Night,  and  October.  In 
the  pure  flow  of  lyrical  verse  the  poet  never  surpassed 
his  early  lines: 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  201 

Ere  sleep  comes  down  to  soothe  the  weary  eyes, 

How  questioneth  the  soul  that  other  soul, — 
The  inner  sense  which  neither  cheats  nor  lies, 

But  self  exposes  unto  self,  a  scroll 
Full  writ  with  all  life's  acts  unwise  or  wise, 

In  characters  indelible  and  known; 
So  trembling  with  the  shock  of  sad  surprise, 

The  soul  doth  view  its  awful  self  alone, 
Ere  sleep  comes  down  to  soothe  the  weary  eyes. 

Other  pieces,  no  more  distinguished  in  poetic  qual 
ity,  are  of  special  biographical  interest.  Robert  Gould 
Shaw  was  the  expression  of  pessimism  as  to  the 
Negro's  future  in  America.  To  Louise  was  addressed 
to  the  young  daughter  of  Dr.  Tobey,  who,  on  one 
occasion  when  the  poet  was  greatly  depressed,  in  the 
simple  way  of  a  child  cheered  him  by  her  gift  of  a  rose. 
A  Death  Song  contains  the  haunting  line,  "Lay  me 
down  beneaf  de  willers  in  de  grass."  The  Monk's 
Walk  reflects  the  poet's  thought  of  being  a  preacher. 
To  a  Violet  found  on  All  Saints  Day  was  the  forebod 
ing  of  domestic  unhappiness.  Finally  there  is  the  swan 
song  contributed  to  Lippincott's — eight  exquisite  lines: 

Because  I  had  loved  so  deeply, 

Because  I  had  loved  so  long, 
God  in  his  great  compassion 

Gave  me  the  gift  of  song. 

Because  I  have  loved  so  vainly, 

And  sung  with  such  faltering  breath 

The  Master  in  infinite  mercy 
Offers  the  boon  of  Death. 


202     A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

Of  the  dialect  poems  by  common  consent  the  master 
piece  is  When  Malindy  Sings,  a  poem  inspired  by  the 
singing  of  the  poet's  mother.  Other  pieces  in  dialect 
that  have  proved  successful  are  The  Rivals,  A  Coquette 
Conquered,  The  0V  Tunes ,  A  Corn-Song,  When  de  Co'n 
Pone's  Hot,  The  Party,  Lullaby,  At  Candle-Lightin9 
Time,  Angelina,  Whistling  Sam,  Two  little  Boots,  The 
Old  Front  Gate,  To  the  Eastern  Shore,  and  Li'l  Gal. 
Dunbar  was  a  true  poet  even  if  not  a  great  one.  His 
work  shows  a  good  sense  of  form,  and  at  its  best  is  al 
most  poignant  in  its  tenderness. 

The  short  stories  of  Dunbar  are  remarkably  even 
in  literary  merit,  and  would  have  been  sufficient  to 
make  his  reputation  even  if  he  had  not  written  his 
poems.  One  of  the  best  technically  is  Jimsella  in  the 
Folks  from  Dixie  volume.  This  story  exhibits  the 
pathos  of  the  life  of  unskilled  Negroes  in  the  North, 
and  the  leading  of  a  little  child.  A  Family  Feud  shows 
the  influence  of  an  old  servant  in  a  wealthy  Kentucky 
family.  The  Walls  of  Jericho  is  an  exposure  of  the 
methods  of  a  sensational  preacher.  A  Supper  by 
Proxy  shows  how  a  Negro's  humor  may  be  at  hand  to 
save  him  even  when  he  faces  a  most  desperate  situa 
tion.  Generally  these  stories  attempt  no  keen  satire, 
simply  a  faithful  portrayal  of  conditions  as  they  are. 
Dunbar's  novels  are  decidedly  weaker  than  his  poems 
and  his  short  stories,  nor  are  his  occasional  articles 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  203 

especially  strong.  When  he  attempted  sustained  work 
in  prose  his  lack  of  college  training  quickly  became 
apparent. 

By  his  genius  Paul  Laurence  D unbar  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  great,  the  wise,  and  the  good.  His 
bookcase  contained  many  autograph  copies  of  the 
works  of  distinguished  contemporaries.  One  of  the 
most  beautiful  pictures  in  the  history  of  American 
letters  is  that  of  William  Dean  Howells  climbing  on 
one  occasion  to  the  top  of  a  cheap  apartment  house 
in  New  York  to  visit  the  poet  when  he  was  sick.  The 
similarity  of  the  position  of  Dunbar  in  American  litera 
ture  to  that  of  Robert  Burns  in  English  has  frequently 
been  pointed  out.  In  our  own  time  he  most  readily 
invites  comparison  with  James  Whitcomb  Riley.  The 
writings  of  both  men  are  distinguished  by  infinite 
tenderness  and  pathos;  and  it  is  pleasant  to  know  that 
even  before  Dunbar  published  his  first  book,  Riley, 
already  successful,  perceived  his  merit  and  wrote  him 
a  word  of  cheer. 

132.  Charles  Waddell  Chesnutt.— Charles  Waddell 
Chesnutt,  the  foremost  novelist  and  short  story  writer 
of  the  race,  was  bom  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  June  20, 
1858.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  began  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools  of  North  Carolina,  from  which  state 
his  parents  had  gone  to  Cleveland;  and  at  the  age  of 
twenty-three  he  became  principal  of  the  State  Normal 


204    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

School  at  Fayetteville.  In  1883  he  left  the  South, 
engaging  for  a  short  while  in  newspaper  work  in  New 
York  City,  but  going  soon  to  Cleveland,  where  he 
worked  as  a  stenographer.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1887. 

While  in  North  Carolina  Mr.  Chesnutt  studied  to 
good  purpose  the  dialect,  manners,  and  superstitions 
of  the  Negro  people  of  the  State.  In  1887  he  began  in 
The  Atlantic  Monthly  the  series  of  stories  which  were 
afterwards  brought  together  in  the  volume  entitled  The 
Conjure  Woman.  This  book  was  published  by  Hough- 
ton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  the  firm  which  published  also  Mr. 
Chesnutt's  other  collection  of  stories  and  the  first  two 
of  the  three  novels  which  he  has  written.  The  Wife  of 
his  Youth,  and  Other  Stories  of  the  Color  Line  appeared 
in  1899.  In  the  same  year  appeared  a  compact 
biography  of  Frederick  Douglass,  a  contribution  to 
the  series  of  Beacon  Biographies  of  Eminent  Amer 
icans.  Three  novels  have  since  appeared,  as  follows: 
The  House  behind  the  Cedars,  in  1900;  The  Marrow  of 
Tradition,  in  1901;  and  The  Colonel's  Dream,  in  1905. 

Mr.  Chesnutt's  short  stories  are  not  all  of  the  same 
degree  of  excellence,  but  the  best  ones  show  that  he 
possesses  mastery  of  the  short  story  as  a  literary  form, 
an  art  the  requisites  of  which  are  completely  uncom- 
prehended  by  many  of  the  younger  aspirants  for  liter 
ary  fame.  One  of  the  very  best  technically  is  The 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  205 

Bouquet.  This  is  a  story  of  the  devotion  of  a  little 
Negro  girl  to  her  white  teacher,  and  shows  clearly 
how  the  force  of  Southern  prejudice  forbids  the  ex 
pression  of  simple  love  not  only  in  a  representative 
home,  but  even  when  the  object  of  the  devotion  is 
borne  to  the  cemetery.  Most  famous  of  all  these 
stories,  however,  is  The  Wife  of  his  Youth,  a  simple 
work  of  art  whose  intensity  is  almost  overpowering. 
It  is  a  tale  of  a  very  fair  colored  man  who,  just  before 
the  Civil  War,  by  the  aid  of  his  Negro  wife,  makes 
his  way  from  slavery  in  Missouri  to  freedom  in  a 
Northern  city,  Groveland  (Cleveland?).  After  the 
years  have  brought  to  him  business  success  and  cul 
ture,  and  he  has  become  the  acknowledged  leader  of 
his  social  circle  and  the  prospective  husband  of  a  very 
attractive  young  widow,  his  wife  suddenly  appears 
on  the  scene.  The  story  ends  with  Mr.  Ryder's 
acknowledging  before  a  company  of  guests  The  Wife 
of  his  Youth.  Such  stories  as  these,  each  setting  forth 
a  certain  problem,  working  it  out  to  its  logical  con 
clusion,  excluding  extraneous  matter,  and,  as  in  The 
Bouquet,  selecting  the  title  from  the  concrete  means 
used  in  working  out  the  theme,  reflect  great  credit 
upon  the  literary  skill  of  the  writer. 

Of  the  novels  The  House  behind  the  Cedars  is  com 
monly  given  first  place.  In  the  story  of  the  heroine, 
Rena  Walden,  are  treated  some  of  the  most  subtle  and 


206    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

piercing  questions  raised  by  the  color-line.  Rena  is 
sought  in  love  by  three  men,  George  Tryon,  a  white 
man,  whose  love  fails  when  put  to  the  test,  Jeff  Wain, 
a  coarse  and  brutal  mulatto,  and  Frank  Fowler,  a  de 
voted  young  Negro,  who  makes  every  sacrifice  de 
manded  by  love.  The  novel,  especially  in  its  last 
pages,  moves  with  an  intensity  that  is  an  unmistak 
able  sign  of  power.  It  is  Mr.  Chesnutt's  most  sus 
tained  treatment  of  the  subject  for  which  he  has  be 
come  best  known,  that  is,  the  delicate  and  tragic 
situation  of  those  who  live  on  the  border-line  of  the 
races;  and  it  is  the  best  work  of  fiction  yet  written  by 
a  member  of  the  race  in  America.  In  The  Marrow  of 
Tradition  the  main  theme  is  the  relations  of  two 
women,  one  white  and  one  colored,  whose  father,  the 
same  white  man,  had  been  married  in  time  to  the 
mother  of  each.  The  novel  touches  upon  almost  every 
phase  of  the  Negro  problem.  It  is  a  powerful  plea  for 
the  Negro;  but  it  is  too  much  a  novel  of  purpose  to 
satisfy  the  highest  standards  of  art.  The  Wellington 
of  the  story  is  very  evidently  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  and 
the  book  was  written  immediately  after  the  race 
troubles  in  that  city  in  1898.  The  Colonel's  Dream  is 
a  sad  story  of  the  failure  of  high  ideals.  Colonel 
Henry  French  is  a  man  who,  born  in  the  South, 
achieves  success  in  New  York  and  returns  to  his  old 
home  for  a  little  vacation  only  to  find  himself  face  to 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  207 

face  with  all  the  problems  that  one  meets  in  a  back 
ward  Southern  town.  He  has  a  dream  of  "a  regener 
ated  South,  filled  with  thriving  industries,  and 
thronged  with  a  prosperous  and  happy  people;"  but, 
becoming  interested  in  the  injustice  visited  upon  the 
Negroes  in  the  courts  and  in  the  employment  of  white 
children  in  the  cotton-mills,  he  encounters  opposition 
to  his  benevolent  plans,  and  finally  goes  back  to  New 
York  defeated.  Mr.  Chesnutt  writes  in  simple,  clear 
English,  and  works  with  a  high  sense  of  art.  He  is  to 
day  the  foremost  man  of  the  race  in  pure  literature, 
and  his  methods  might  well  be  studied  by  younger 
writers  who  desire  to  treat  in  the  guise  of  fiction  the 
many  searching  problems  that  one  meets  to-day  in  the 
life  of  the  South. 

133.  W.  E.  Burghardt  DuBois.— William  Edward 
Burghardt  DuBois  was  born  February  23,  1868,  at 
Great  Barrington,  Mass.  He  received  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts  at  Fisk  University  in  1888,  the  same 
degree  at  Harvard  in  1890,  that  of  Master  of  Arts  at 
Harvard  in  1891,  and,  after  a  season  of  study  at  the 
University  of  Berlin,  received  also  the  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Philosophy  at  Harvard  in  1895,  his  thesis  being  his 
exhaustive  study,  Suppression  of  the  Slave-Trade.  Dr. 
DuBois  taught  for  a  brief  period  at  Wilberforce  Uni 
versity,  and  was  also  for  a  time  an  assistant  and  fellow 
in  Sociology  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  pro- 


208    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

during  in  1899  his  study,  The  Philadelphia  Negro.  In 
1896  he  accepted  the  professorship  of  History  and 
Economics  at  Atlanta  University,  the  position  which 
he  left  in  1910  to  become  the  Director  of  Publicity  and 
Research  for  the  National  Association  for  the  Ad 
vancement  of  Colored  People.  He  has  made  various 
investigations,  frequently  for  the  national  government, 
and  has  contributed  many  sociological  studies  to 
leading  magazines.  He  has  been  the  moving  spirit 
in  the  Atlanta  Conference,  and  by  the  Studies  of  Negro 
Problems  which  he  has  edited  at  Atlanta  University 
he  has  become  recognized  as  one  of  the  great  sociolo 
gists  of  the  day,  arid  as  the  man  who  more  than  anyone 
else  has  given  scientific  accuracy  to  studies  relating  to 
the  Negro. 

Aside  from  his  more  technical  studies  Dr.  DuBois 
has  produced  three  books  which  call  for  consideration 
in  a  review  of  Negro  literature.  Of  these  one  is  a 
biography,  one  a  novel,  and  the  other  a  collection  of 
essays.  In  1909  appeared  John  Brown,  a  contribution 
to  the  series  of  American  Crisis  Biographies.  The 
subject  was  one  well  adapted  to  treatment  at  the  hands 
of  Dr.  DuBois,  and  in  the  last  chapter,  "The  Legacy 
of  John  Brown,"  he  has  shown  that  his  hero  has  a 
message  for  twentieth  century  America,  this:  "The 
cost  of  liberty  is  less  than  the  price  of  repression." 
The  most  recent  sustained  work  is  The  Quest  of  the 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  209 

Silver  Fleece,  which  appeared  in  1911.  This  story  has 
three  main  themes:  the  economic  position  of  the 
Negro  agricultural  laborer,  the  subsidizing  of  a  certain 
kind  of  Negro  schools,  and  Negro  life  and  society  in 
the  city  of  Washington.  The  book  employs  a  big 
theme  in  its  portrayal  of  the  power  of  King  Cotton  in 
both  high  and  lowly  life  in  the  Southland;  but  its 
tone  is  frequently  one  of  satire,  and  on  the  whole  the 
work  will  not  add  much  to  the  already  established 
reputation  of  the  author.  The  third  book  really  ap 
peared  before  either  of  the  two  works  just  mentioned. 
In  1903  fourteen  essays,  most  of  which  had  already 
appeared  in  such  magazines  as  The  Atlantic  Monthly 
and  The  World's  Work  were  brought  together  in  a 
volume  entitled  The  Souls  of  Black  Folk.  The  re 
markable  style  of  this  book  has  made  it  unquestion 
ably  the  most  important  work  in  classic  English  yet 
written  by  a  Negro.  It  is  marked  by  all  the  arts  of 
rhetoric,  especially  by  liquid  and  alliterative  effects, 
strong  antithesis,  frequent  allusion,  and  poetic  sug- 
gestiveness.  The  color-line  is  "The  Veil,"  the  Negro 
melodies  the  "  Sorrow  Songs."  Where  merit  is  so 
even  and  the  standard  of  performance  so  high,  one 
hesitates  to  choose  that  which  is  best.  The  Dawn  of 
Freedom  is  a  study  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau;  Mr. 
Booker  T.  Washington  and  Others  is  a  frank  and  fair 
criticism  of  the  foremost  leader  of  the  race;  The  Mean- 


210    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

ing  of  Progress  is  a  story  of  life  in  Tennessee  told  with 
infinite  pathos  by  one  who  has  been  the  country 
school-master;  The  Training  of  Black  Men  is  a  plea 
for  liberally  educated  leadership;  The  Quest  of  the 
Golden  Fleece,  like  one  or  two  related  essays,  is  a  faith 
ful  portrayal  of  life  in  the  Black  Belt;  and  The  Coming 
of  John  is  the  story  of  what  passes  in  more  than  one 
noble  soul  that  has  caught  a  glimpse  of  the  light. 
The  fault  of  the  book,  if  we  can  speak  of  it  as  a  fault, 
is  an  ever-present  note  of  pessimism.  This  is  heard 
most  clearly  in  The  Passing  of  the  First-Born:  "She 
who  in  simple  clearness  of  vision  sees  beyond  the  stars 
said  when  he  had  flown,  'He  will  be  happy  There;  he 
ever  loved  beautiful  things.'  And  I,  far  more  ignorant, 
and  blind  by  the  web  of  mine  own  weaving,  sit  alone 
winding  words  and  muttering,  'If  still  he  be,  and  he 
be  There,  and  there  be  a  There,  let  him  be  happy,  O 
Fate! ' '  The  book  as  a  whole,  however,  is  a  powerful 
plea  for  justice  and  the  liberty  of  citizenship,  and  gives 
force  to  the  prophecy  in  The  Faith  of  the  Fathers: 
"Some  day  the  Awakening  will  come,  when  the  pent- 
up  vigor  of  ten  million  souls  shall  sweep  irresistibly 
toward  the  Goal,  out  of  the  Valley  of  the  Shadow  of 
Death,  where  all  that  makes  life  worth  living — Liberty, 
Justice,  and  Right — is  marked  For  White  People  Only." 
134.  William  Stanley  Braithwaite. — Foremost  of 
the  poets  of  the  race  at  present  is  William  Stanley 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  211 

Braithwaite  of  Boston.  Mr.  Braithwaite  has  sur 
passed  others  of  the  younger  writers  simply  because 
he  has  worked  more  conscientiously  at  his  art  and 
taken  the  time  and  the  pains  to  master  the  details 
which  others  all  too  often  deem  unimportant.  He  has 
published  two  small  books  of  poems,  Lyrics  of  Life  and 
Love  and  The  House  of  Falling  Leaves;  and  within  the 
last  few  years  he  has  found  his  way  into  such  magazines 
as  the  Century  and  the  Atlantic.  His  poetry  shows 
him  to  be  an  ardent  admirer  of  Keats  and  Shelley, 
and  the  influence  of  these  two  poets  is  seen  on  every 
page  of  his  work.  Mr.  Braithwaite  has  also  done 
something  in  the  department  of  criticism,  having 
edited  with  notes  three  anthologies,  The  Book  of 
Elizabethan  Verse,  The  Book  of  Restoration  Verse,  and 
The  Book  of  Georgian  Verse.  He  has  also  made  it  his 
task  each  year  for  several  years  past  to  study  for  the 
Boston  Evening  Transcript  the  output  of  poetry  in  the 
current  magazines. 

135.  Other  Writers. — In  addition  to  those  who  have 
been  mentioned,  there  have  been  scores  of  writers 
who  would  have  to  be  considered  in  an  exhaustive 
discussion  of  Negro  literature.  Most  that  has  been 
written,  however,  belongs  to  the  field  of  discussions 
of  the  Negro  Problem  rather  than  to  that  of  polite 
literature.  Many  collections  of  sermons  and  addresses 
have  been  published;  but  in  the  field  of  theology  in 


212    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

which  so  much  has  been  attempted  no  member  of  the 
race  has  yet  produced  a  work  that  can  command  the 
attention  of  the  scholarship  of  the  world,  no  work,  for 
instance,  of  the  order  of  Kenan's  Life  of  Jesus  or 
Strong's  Systematic  Theology.  The  History  of  the  Negro 
Race  in  America,  by  George  W.  Williams,  was  a  strong 
contribution  to  American  historical  study.  This  work 
was  the  exploration  of  a  new  field;  and  although  it  is 
now  more  than  twenty-five  years  old  and  not  alto 
gether  free  from  errors,  it  is  still  too  important  to  be 
neglected  by  any  student  of  Negro  history.  In  tech 
nical  scholarship  one  is  quickly  reminded  of  the  work 
of  President  William  S.  Scarborough  of  Wilberforce, 
who  has  published  among  other  things  "  First  Lessons 
in  Greek"  and  a  treatise  on  the  " Birds"  of  Aris 
tophanes. 

In  recent  years  there  have  been  published  a  great 
many  works,  generally  illustrated,  on  the  progress  and 
achievements  of  the  race.  A  few  of  these  books  have 
been  scholarly  and  serviceable,  more  have  been  in 
different,  and  still  more  have  been  worthless.  The 
common  fault  has  been  a  lack  of  literary  form.  Some 
collaborations  however  have  been  of  more  than  usual 
merit.  Three  may  be  observed.  One  is  a  volume 
entitled  "The  Negro  Problem,"  published  in  1903  by 
James  Pott  &  Co.,  of  New  York.  This  consists  of 
seven  papers  by  representative  Negroes.  Another 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  213 

collaboration  is  "From  Servitude  to  Service,"  pub 
lished  in  1905  by  the  American  Unitarian  Association 
of  Boston.  This  is  made  up  of  the  Old  South  Lectures 
on  the  history  and  work  of  Southern  institutions  for 
the  education  of  the  Negro.  The  third  book  is  of 
special  importance  for  students  of  the  economic  situa 
tion  of  the  Negro  in  the  South.  It  is  made  up  of  four 
papers,  two  by  Dr.  Washington  and  two  by  Dr. 
DuBois,  which  were  the  William  Levi  Bull  Lectures  in 
the  Philadelphia  Divinity  School  for  the  year  1907. 
It  is  entitled  "The  Negro  in  the  South,"  and  was 
published  in  1907  by  George  W.  Jacobs  &  Co.,  of 
Philadelphia. 

Prof.  Kelly  Miller,  of  Howard  University,  and  Mr. 
Archibald  H.  Grimke,  of  Boston,  deserve  special  men 
tion  for  their  strong  magazine  articles.  Professor  Mil 
ler  has  recently  collected  some  of  his  very  cogent 
papers  in  a  volume  entitled  "Race  Adjustment,"  and 
Mr.  Grimke  has  written  the  lives  of  Garrison  and 
Sumner  in  the  American  Reformers  Series.  The  work 
of  these  two  representative  magazine  writers,  however, 
belongs  rather  to  the  department  of  History  or  Sociol 
ogy  than  to  that  of  English.  To  the  same  province 
belongs  also  William  A.  Sinclair's  The  Aftermath  of 
Slavery. 

In  sustained  poetic  flight  and  in  the  classic  drama 
no  Negro  has  yet  achieved  success.  Here  and  there, 


214    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

however,  small  things  of  real  merit  have  been  done. 
James  W.  Johnson  has  had  poems  accepted  by  the 
Century  and  the  Independent,  and  James  D.  Cor- 
rothers  and  Silas  X.  Floyd  have  done  work  of  con 
siderable  service  in  humorous  writing  and  Negro  folk 
lore.  A.  0.  Stafford,  principal  of  the  Lincoln  School  in 
Washington,  has  published  through  the  American 
Book  Company  a  small  and  very  good  supplementary 
reader  entitled  Animal  Fables  from  the  Dark  Continent. 

Several  persons  have  written  autobiographies.  John 
Mercer  Langston's  From  the  Virginia  Plantation  to 
the  National  Capitol  is  interesting  and  serviceable. 
The  incomparable  work  in  this  class  of  writing,  how 
ever,  is  Up  from  Slavery,  by  Booker  T.  Washington. 
The  modesty  and  simplicity  of  style  that  characterize 
this  book  have  made  it  a  model  of  personal  writing. 
Dr.  Washington  has  produced  several  other  notable 
books,  such  as  The  Negro  in  Business,  Working  with 
the  Hands,  and  The  Story  of  the  Negro.  Very  recently 
there  has  appeared  a  remarkable  book,  Autobiography 
of  an  Ex-Colored  Man.  This  seems  to  be  half  fact,  half 
fiction.  It  was  published  anonymously,  but  is  gener 
ally  credited  to  James  W.  Johnson. 

Numerous  attempts  at  the  composition  of  novels 
have  been  made,  but  it  is  in  this  special  department 
that  a  sense  of  literary  form  has  been  most  lacking. 
With  the  exception  of  DuBois's  The  Quest  of  the  Silver 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  215 

Fleece,  no  work  in  the  same  class  as  the  novels  of 
Chesnutt  has  yet  appeared. 

136.  The  Stage. — In  no  other  field  have  Negroes 
with  artistic  aspirations  found  the  road  so  hard  as  it 
is  in  that  of  the  legitimate  drama.  The  one  or  two 
who  have  succeeded  in  this  special  line  have  done  so 
only  by  reason  of  great  individual  force,  and  at  the 
expense  of  leaving  their  home  country  and  seeking 
recognition  abroad  where  their  racial  affinity  would  not 
always  debar  them. 

Conspicuous  on  the  roll  of  those  who  have  thus 
triumphed  is  the  name  of  Ira  Frederick  Aldridge. 
About  the  early  life  of  this  man  there  are  conflicting 
accounts.  One  says  that  he  was  born  in  Bel  Air  in 
Maryland  about  1810,  became  apprenticed  to  a  Ger 
man  ship  carpenter,  accompanied  Edmund  Kean  to 
England  as  his  servant,  returning  to  America  about 
1830;  and  another  story,  not  quite  so  well  founded,  says 
that  he  was  the  son  of  a  native  of  Senegal  who  was 
brought  as  a  slave  to  America,  that  he  was  born  in 
New  York  in  1807,  and  that  he  was  sent  to  the  Uni 
versity  of  Glasgow  to  be  educated  for  the  ministry. 
In  any  case,  when  he  appeared  in  London  in  the  early 
thirties,  he  became  a  remarkably  popular  actor.  His 
name  always  calls  up  the  part  of  Othello;  but  he 
achieved  distinction  also  in  other  roles  adapted  to  his 
color.  On  the  continent  of  Europe  he  became  re- 


216    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

garded  as  one  of  the  greatest  tragedians  of  the  day. 
He  received  many  decorations  of  crosses  and  medals, 
and  became  a  member  of  several  of  the  great  con 
tinental  academies  of  arts  and  science.  The  emperors 
of  Russia  and  Austria  and  the  King  of  Prussia  were 
among  those  who  honored  him.  He  died  in  Poland  in 
1867. 

Within  the  last  few  years,  as  the  Negro  was  practi 
cally  excluded  from  participation  in  the  regular  drama, 
and  as  the  more  serious  works  of  the  stage  have  not 
yet  secured  a  large  following  among  the  Negroes  of  the 
South,  there  have  come  into  existence  several  musical 
comedy  companies  whose  aim  has  been  merely  to 
amuse.  Some  of  these  have  offered  to  the  public 
mere  burlesques  of  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
race.  Others,  however,  have  done  work  of  an  order 
altogether  different.  The  best  within  the  last  decade 
have  been  the  Williams  and  Walker  and  the  Cole  and 
Johnson  companies.  Bert  A.  Williams  is  by  many 
New  York  critics  considered  the  foremost  comedian 
on  the  American  stage  at  the  present  time. 

137.  Orators. — In  the  history  of  the  orators  of  the 
race  the  names  of  Frederick  Douglass,  J.  C.  Price,  and 
Booker  T.  Washington  are  conspicuous.  Price  was 
for  years  president  of  Livingstone  College  in  North 
Carolina,  and  his  name  seems  to  have  become  a 
synonym  for  eloquence.  The  speeches  of  the  other 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  217 

two  men  have  become  simply  a  part  of  the  life  of  the 
American  nation.  The  real  work  of  the  life  of  Douglass 
was  done  before  and  immediately  after  the  Civil  War. 
Mr.  Chesnutt  has  admirably  summed  up  the  char 
acteristics  of  his  oratory.  He  tells  us  that  "  Douglass 
possessed,  in  large  measure,  the  physical  equipment 
most  impressive  in  an  orator.  He  was  a  man  of 
magnificent  figure,  tall,  strong,  his  head  crowned  with 
a  mass  of  hair  which  made  a  striking  element  of  his 
appearance.  He  had  deep-set  and  flashing  eyes,  a  firm, 
well-moulded  chin,  a  countenance  somewhat  severe 
in  repose,  but  capable  of  a  wide  range  of  expression. 
His  voice  was  rich  and  melodious,  and  of  carrying 
power."  Dr.  Booker  T.  Washington  is  by  general 
consent  one  of  the  first,  perhaps  the  very  first,  of 
contemporary  American  orators.  Three  of  his  most 
notable  speeches  were  delivered  in  the  earlier  years  of 
his  national  prominence.  His  speech  at  the  Atlanta 
Exposition  of  1895  is  famous  for  its  illustration  of  two 
ships  at  sea  with  the  moral,  "Cast  down  your  buckets 
where  you  are,"  and  for  the  so-called  compromise 
with  the  white  South:  "In  all  things  that  are  purely 
social  we  can  be  as  separate  as  the  fingers,  yet  one  as 
the  hand  in  all  things  essential  to  mutual  progress." 
Shortly  after  receiving  the  honorary  degree  of  Master 
of  Arts  at  the  Harvard  commencement  of  1896,  Mr. 
Washington  made  a  speech  in  which  he  emphasized 


2i8    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

the  fact  that  the  welfare  of  the  wealthiest  and  most 
cultured  person  in  New  England  is  bound  up  with 
that  of  the  humblest  man  in  Alabama,  and  that  each 
man  is  his  brother's  keeper.  At  the  Chicago  Peace 
Jubilee  of  1898  he  reviewed  the  conduct  of  the  Negro 
in  the  wars  of  the  United  States,  making  a  powerful 
plea  for  justice  to  a  race  which  had  always  chosen  the 
better  part  in  the  wars  of  its  country.  Mr.  Washing 
ton  has  delivered  hundreds  of  addresses,  but  he  has 
really  never  surpassed  the  feeling  and  point  and 
frankness  of  these  early  speeches. 

138.  Painters. — E.  M.  Bannister,  whose  home  was 
at  Providence  while  he  lived,  while  not  known  to  the 
younger  generation,  was  very  prominent  in  his  art 
thirty  years  ago.  He  gathered  about  himself  a  coterie 
of  artists  and  rich  men  that  formed  the  nucleus  of  the 
Rhode  Island  Art  Club,  and  one  of  his  pictures  took  a 
medal  at  the  Centennial  Exposition  of  1876. 

Incomparably  the  foremost  Negro  American  painter 
of  the  present  day  is  Henry  Ossawa  Tanner,  who  was 
born  in  Pittsburg  June  21,  1859,  the  son  of  Bishop 
Tanner,  of  the  A.  M.  E.  Church.  His  parents  removed 
to  Philadelphia  soon  after  his  birth,  and  there  he 
studied  in  the  public  schools  and  under  Thomas 
Eakins  at  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 
In  1882  in  Paris  he  began  to  study  under  Jean  Paul 
Laurens,  being  less  conscious  of  prejudice  abroad  than 


NEGPO  ACHIEVEMENTS  219 

at  home.  He  gave  some  attention  to  landscape,  but 
soon  began  to  devote  himself  to  scriptural  subjects; 
and  it  is  his  religious  work  which  has  made  him  fa 
mous.  He  won  honorable  mention  at  the  Paris  Salon 
of  1896,  a  third  class  medal  the  next  year,  a  second 
class  medal  in  1907,  and  a  medal  at  the  Paris  Exposi 
tion  of  1900.  In  the  United  States  he  was  awarded 
the  Walter  Lippincott  prize  in  Philadelphia  in  1900, 
and  silver  medals  at  Buffalo  in  1901,  and  at  St.  Louis 
in  1904.  In  1906  he  won  the  Harris  prize  of  $500  for 
the  best  picture  in  the  annual  exhibition  of  American 
paintings  at  the  Chicago  Art  Institute.  Daniel  in  the 
Lion's  Den,  the  first  of  the  line  of  religious  paintings, 
was  bought  by  the  Philadelphia  Academy.  The  Rais 
ing  of  Lazarus  hangs  in  the  Luxembourg.  Christ  and 
Nicodemus  and  The  Annunciation  are  in  Philadelphia, 
the  one  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  the  other  in 
Memorial  Hall  in  Fairmount  Park.  The  Two  Disciples 
at  the  Tomb  was  bought  by  the  Chicago  Art  Institute. 
The  Betrayal  is  in  the  Carnegie  Gallery  in  Pittsburg. 
The  Bagpipe  Lesson  and  The  Banjo  Lesson  are  in  the 
Collis  P.  Huntington  Library  at  Hampton  Institute. 
Notable  also  are  the  two  pictures  exhibited  at  the 
Paris  Salon  of  1906,  Le  Pelerin  dEmmaus  and  Le 
Retour  de  la  Salute  Femme.  While  the  emotional 
quality  is  strong  in  Mr.  Tanner's  work,  his  technique 
has  satisfied  even  the  fastidious  criticism  of  France. 


220    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

His  pictures  show  a  strong  mastery  of  color,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  rich  yellow  light  in  The  Annunciation. 
Mr.  Tanner  makes  his  home  in  Paris,  and  his  life 
is  a  quiet  one  full  of  hard  work. 

Of  the  students  of  promise  the  foremost  is  Richard 
L.  Brown,  of  Parkersburg,  W.  Va.,  whose  landscapes 
have  already  received  the  praise  of  discerning  critics 
and  from  whom  great  things  are  expected  in  the 
future. 

139.  Sculptors. — In  sculpture  two  women  have 
risen  to  recognized  position,  though  there  are  to-day 
one  or  two  young  students  of  considerable  promise. 
Edmonia  Lewis  was  born  in  New  York  in  1845.  A 
sight  of  the  statue  of  Franklin  in  Boston  inspired  her 
with  the  desire  also  to  "make  a  stone  man."  William 
Lloyd  Garrison  introduced  her  to  a  sculptor  who  en 
couraged  her  and  gave  her  a  few  suggestions,  but  alto 
gether  she  received  little  instruction  in  her  art.  In 
1865  she  attracted  considerable  attention  by  a  bust 
of  Robert  Gould  Shaw  exhibited  in  Boston.  In  this 
same  year  she  went  to  Rome  to  continue  her  studies, 
and  two  years  later  took  up  her  permanent  residence 
there.  Among  her  works  are  "The  Freedwoman;" 
"The  Death  of  Cleopatra,"  exhibited  at  the  exposition 
in  Philadelphia  in  1876;  "Asleep;"  "The  Marriage  of 
Hiawatha,"  and  "Madonna  with  the  Infant  Christ." 
Among  her  busts  in  terra  cotta  are  those  of  John 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  221 

Brown,  Charles  Sumner,  Lincoln,  and  Longfellow. 
Edmonia  Lewis  was  the  first  American  of  Negro  an 
cestry  to  achieve  distinction  as  a  sculptor.  Most  of 
her  work  is  in  Europe. 

Meta  Vaux  Warrick  (now  Mrs.  Fuller,  the  wife  of 
Dr.  Solomon  C.  Fuller,  of  South  Framingham,  Mass.) 
first  compelled  serious  recognition  of  her  talent  by  her 
work  in  the  Pennsylvania  School  of  Industrial  Art. 
Her  first  original  piece  in  clay  was  a  head  of  Medusa. 
This  conception,  with  its  hanging  jaw,  beads  of  gore 
on  the  face,  and  eyes  starting  from  their  sockets, 
marked  her  as  a  sculptor  of  the  horrible.  A  little 
later  came  a  crucifix  upon  which  hung  a  form  of  Christ 
torn  by  anguish.  In  1899  the  young  student  went  to 
Paris,  where  her  work  brought  her  in  contact  with 
St.  Gaudens  and  other  artists.  Then  there  came  a  day 
when  the  great  Rodin  himself,  thrilled  by  the  figure  in 
"  Silent  Sorrow,"  a  man  represented  as  eating  his 
heart  out,  in  the  attitude  of  a  father  beamed  upon  the 
girl  and  said,  "My  child,  you  are  a  sculptor;  you  have 
the  sense  of  form."  A  group  entitled  "The  Wretched," 
exhibited  in  the  Paris  Salon  in  1903,  is  generally  re 
garded  as  the  artist's  masterpiece.  It  portrays  almost 
every  conceivable  kind  of  human  suffering.  Other 
conceptions,  some  of  which  are  more  classic,  are 
"Silenus,"  "The  Dancing  Girl,"  "The  Wrestlers," 
"A  Brittany  Peasant,"  the  horrible  "Oedipus,"  por- 


222    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

traying  the  hero  plucking  out  his  eyes,  and  the  grue 
some  "  Carrying  the  Dead  Body."  Since  her  return 
to  America,  the  sculptor  has  turned  to  less  ghastly 
subjects.  One  of  her  groups  was  made  for  the  James 
town  Tercentennial,  and  represents  the  advance  of 
the  Negro  since  1619.  Meta  Warrick  Fuller  is  an 
excellent  exponent  of  the  Negro  genius,  uniting  with 
her  sense  of  beauty  an  art  that  gets  its  effects  in 
primitive  and  elemental  fashion. 

Prominent  among  the  younger  sculptors  is  Bertina 
Lee,  of  Trenton,  N.  J.,  a  recent  graduate  of  the 
Trenton  Art  School,  who  has  already  won  several 
valuable  prizes. 

140.  Vocalists. — It  is  but  natural  that  soprano 
singers  should  have  been  those  most  distinguished. 
Even  before  the  Civil  War  the  Negro  race  produced 
one  of  the  first  rank  in  the  person  of  Elizabeth  Taylor 
Greenfield,  the  "  Black  Swan,"  who  came  into  prom 
inence  in  1851.  This  artist,  bora  in  Mississippi,  was 
taken  to  Philadelphia  and  there  cared  for  by  a  Quaker 
lady.  Said  the  Daily  State  Register,  of  Albany,  after 
one  of  her  concerts:  "The  compass  of  her  marvelous 
voice  embraces  twenty-seven  notes,  reaching  from  the 
sonoious  bass  of  a  baritone  to  a  few  notes  above  even 
Jenny  Lind's  highest."  A  voice  with  a  range  of  more 
than  three  octaves  naturally  attracted  much  atten 
tion  in  England  as  well  as  in  America,  and  comparisons 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  223 

with  Jenny  Lind,  who  was  then  at  the  height  of  her 
great  fame,  were  frequent.  After  her  great  success 
on  the  stage,  Miss  Greenfield  became  a  teacher  of 
music  in  Philadelphia.  Twenty-five  years  later  Nellie 
Brown  (Mrs. -Mitchell),  of  New  Hampshire,  began  to 
attract  attention  by  her  charming  rendition  of  English, 
Italian,  French,  Scotch  and  Irish  songs.  About  the 
same  time  the  young  Hyers  Sisters,  Anna  and  Emma, 
of  San  Francisco,  started  on  their  memorable  tour  of 
the  continent,  winning  some  of  their  greatest  triumphs 
in  critical  New  England.  Anna  Hyers  especially  was 
remarked  as  a  phenomenon.  Then  rose  Madame 
Selika,  a  singer  of  most  uncommon  ability  and  power 
who  won  great  success  on  the  continent  of  Europe  as 
well  as  in  America  and  England.  The  careers  of  two 
later  singers  are  so  recent  as  to  be  still  fresh  in  the 
public  memory;  one  indeed  may  still  be  heard  on  the 
stage.  It  was  in  1887  that  Flora  Batson  entered  on  the 
period  of  her  greatest  success.  The  singing  of  this 
artist  was,  at  its  best,  of  the  sort  that  sends  an  au 
dience  into  the  wildest  enthusiasm.  At  one  time  at  a 
great  temperance  revival  in  New  York  she  sang  for 
ninety  successive  nights  with  tremendous  effect  one 
song,  "  Six  Feet  of  Earth  Make  Us  All  One  Size."  Her 
voice  exhibited  a  compass  of  three  octaves,  from  the 
purest,  clearcut  soprano,  sweet  and  full,  to  the  rich, 
round  notes  of  the  baritone  register.  Three  or  four 


224    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

years  later  than  Flora  Batson  in  point  both  of  birth 
and  the  period  of  greatest  artistic  success  came  Mrs. 
Sissieretta  Jones,  with  whose  name  the  "S'wanee 
River"  is  almost  inseparably  linked  in  the  public 
mind.  Her  voice  is  of  great  volume  and  unusual  rich 
ness;  it  exhibits  also  the  peculiar  plaintive  quality 
ever  characteristic  of  the  Negro  voice. 

Within  the  last  decade  Mrs.  E.  Azalia  Hackley,  of 
Detroit  and  Philadelphia,  has  been  prominent  as  a 
concert  soprano.  Mrs.  Hackley  has  a  splendid  musical 
temperament  and  has  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  three 
years  of  study  in  Paris  and  other  European  cities.  She 
has  published  a  Guide  to  Voice  Culture,  has  assisted 
many  individuals,  has  established  a  foreign  scholar 
ship,  and  generally  has  done  more  than  anybody  else  for 
the  musical  cultivation  of  the  Negro  people  of  Amer 
ica.  Mrs.  Anita  Patti  Brown,  a  product  of  the  Chicago 
conservatories  who  is  just  coming  into  national  prom 
inence,  sings  with  unusual  simplicity  and  ease.  There 
is  moreover  in  her  voice  a  sympathetic  quality  that 
makes  a  ready  appeal  to  the  heart  of  an  audience.  Of 
the  men  Harry  T.  Burleigh,  of  New  York,  is  foremost. 
For  the  past  eighteen  years  he  has  been  employed  as 
baritone  soloist  in  St.  George's  Episcopal  Church  and 
about  half  so  long  in  the  aristocratic  Fifth  Avenue 
Jewish  Synagogue.  As  a  concert  and  oratorio  singer 
Mr.  Burleigh  has  met  with  flattering  success.  He  is 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  225 

also  a  composer  of  note.  Of  the  younger  men  Roland 
W.  Hayes,  a  brilliant  tenor,  gives  promise  of  being 
able  to  justify  expectations  awakened  by  a  voice  of 
truly  sensational  quality. 

141.  Fisk  Jubilee  Singers. — In  this  general  review 
of  those  who  have  helped  to  make  the  Negro  voice 
famous,  mention  should  be  made  of  a  remarkable 
company  of  singers  who  first  made  the  folk-songs  of 
the  race  known  to  the  world  at  large.  In  1871  the 
Fisk  Jubilee  Singers  began  their  memorable  progress 
through  America  and  Europe,  meeting  at  first  with 
scorn  and  sneers,  but  before  long  touching  the  heart 
of  the  world  with  their  strange  music.  The  original 
band  consisted  of  four  young  men  and  five  young 
women ;  in  the  seven  years  of  the  existence  of  the  com 
pany  altogether  twenty-four  persons  were  enrolled  in 
it.  Says  J.  B.  Marsh  in  his  little  book,  The  Story  of  the 
Jubilee  Singers:  They  were  at  times  without  money 
to  buy  needed  clothing;  yet  in  three  years  they  re 
turned,  bringing  back  with  them  nearly  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars.  They  had  been  turned  away  from 
hotels  and  driven  out  of  railway  waiting-rooms,  be 
cause  of  their  color;  but  they  had  been  received  with 
honor  by  the  President  of  the  United  States;  they  had 
sung  their  slave  songs  before  the  Queen  of  Great 
Britain,  and  they  had  gathered  as  invited  guests  about 
the  breakfast  table  of  her  Prime  Minister.  Their 


226    A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

success  was  as  remarkable  as  their  mission  was  unique. 
Altogether  these  singers  by  their  seven  years  of  work 
raised  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars,  and 
secured  for  their  institution  school  books,  paintings, 
and  apparatus  to  the  value  of  seven  or  eight  thousand 
more.  They  sang  in  the  United  States,  England, 
Scotland,  Ireland,  Holland,  Switzerland,  and  Ger 
many.  Since  their  time  they  have  been  much  imi 
tated,  but  hardly  ever  equalled,  and  never  surpassed. 
142.  Composers. — The  foremost  name  on  the  roll 
of  Negro  composers  is  that  of  a  man  whose  home  was 
in  England,  but  who  in  so  many  ways  identified  him 
self  with  the  Negroes  in  the  United  States  that  he 
deserves  to  be  considered  here.  Samuel  Coleridge- 
Taylor  (1875-1912)  was  born  in  London,  and  began 
the  study  of  the  violin  when  he  was  six  years  old.  As 
he  grew  older  he  emphasized  more  and  more  the  violin 
and  the  piano.  In  1890  he  became  a  student  in  the 
violin  department  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music. 
In  his  third  year  at  this  institution  he  won  a  prize  in 
composition,  and  in  1894  was  graduated  with  honor. 
His  early  works  include  a  number  of  anthems  and 
some  chamber-music.  In  1898  Coleridge-Taylor  be 
came  famous  by  his  cantata,  ''Hiawatha's  Wedding- 
Feast."  This  was  followed  by  "The  Death  of  Minne- 
haha"  and  "Hiawatha's  Departure."  His  most  dis 
tinctive  work,  however,  is  that  reflecting  his  interest 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  227 

in  the  Negro  folk-song.  "Characteristic  of  the 
melancholy  beauty,  barbaric  color,  charm  of  musical 
rhythm  and  vehement  passion  of  the  true  Negro 
music,  are  his  symphonic  pianoforte  selections  based 
on  Negro  melodies  from  Africa  and  America,  the 
'African  Suite/  a  group  of  pianoforte  pieces,  the 
'African  Romances'  (words  by  Paul  L.  Dunbar),  the 
'Songs  of  Slavery/  'Three  Choral  Ballads'  and  'Afri 
can  Dances/  and  a  suite  for  violin  and  pianoforte." 
Prominent  later  vocal  works  are  "The  Atonement" 
and  "The  Blind  Girl  of  Castel-Cuille."  This  great 
musician  also  wrote  the  music  to  "Herod;"  "Othello," 
a  suite  for  pianoforte;  "A  Tale  of  Old  Japan,"  his  last 
choral  work,  and  various  waltzes,  as  well  as  other 
things.  All  of  his  works  show  breadth  of  treatment 
and  effects  of  beauty  attained  by  simple  means. 

The  foremost  composers  of  the  race  in  America  are 
W.  Marion  Cook  and  Harry  T.  Burleigh.  Mr.  Cook's 
time  has  been  given  very  largely  to  the  composition 
of  popular  music.  At  the  same  time,  however,  he  has 
produced  numerous  songs  that  bear  the  stamp  of 
genius.  Very  recently  a  group  of  four  of  his  charac 
teristic  songs  has  been  published  by  the  Schirmer 
music  publishers.  Mr.  Burleigh  has  produced  more 
classical  ballads  than  anyone  else.  He  assisted 
Dvorak  in  his  "New  World  Symphony"  based  on  the 

*  The  Crisis,  Oct.  1912 


228    A   SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

Negro  folk-songs.  His  work  is  always  accepted  by  the 
best  publishers  and  finds  a  ready  sale.  J.  Rosamond 
Johnson  is  also  a  composer  with  many  original  ideas. 
The  success  of  the  musical  comedies  that  have  flour 
ished  in  the  last  decade  has  been  due  most  largely  to 
Mr.  Cook  and  Mr.  Johnson. 

143.  Other  Musicians. — Raymond  Augustus  Law- 
son,  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  is  probably  the  foremost 
pianist  of  the  race.  His  technique  is  most  highly 
developed,  and  his  style  causes  him  to  be  a  favorite 
concert  pianist.  He  conducts  one  of  the  leading 
studios  in  New  England  and  enjoys  a  wealthy  cli 
entele.  While  he  and  J.  Rosamond  Johnson  and  Roy 
W.  Tibbs  and  Hazel  Harrison  can  not  possibly  be 
overlooked,  there  are  to-day  so  many  excellent  pianists 
that  a  most  competent  and  well-informed  musician 
would  hesitate  before  passing  judgment  upon  them. 
Of  the  organists  William  Herbert  Bush,  of  New  Lon 
don,  Conn.,  Frederick  P.  White,  of  Boston,  and  Mel 
ville  Charlton,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  are  in  the  first 
rank.  Mr.  Bush  has  for  more  than  twenty-five  years 
filled  his  position  at  the  Second  Congregational  Church 
of  New  London.  He  has  also  devoted  much  time  to 
composition.  Mr.  White,  also  a  composer,  has  for 
twenty  years  had  charge  of  the  instrument  in  the 
First  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of  Charlestown. 
Mr.  Charlton  is  considerably  younger  than  the  other 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  229 

artists  just  mentioned;  but  he  is  fast  winning  a  reputa 
tion  as  one  of  the  foremost  organists  in  the  United 
States.  Of  the  violinists  Joseph  Douglass,  of  Washing 
ton,  D.  C.,  has  for  years  held  his  place  as  the  foremost 
violinist  of  the  race.  To  rare  experience  he  adds  great 
technical  mastery  of  his  instrument.  Clarence  Cam 
eron  White  and  Felix  Weir,  both  also  of  Washington, 
are  prominent  among  the  younger  men  in  this  special 
field.  In  this  general  sketch  of  those  who  have  added 
to  the  musical  achievement  of  the  Negro  race,  there 
is  a  name  that  should  not  be  overlooked.  "  Blind 
Tom,"  who  attracted  so  much  attention  some  years 
ago,  deserves  notice  as  a  prodigy  rather  than  as  a 
musician  of  solid  accomplishment.  His  real  name  was 
Thomas  Bethune,  and  he  was  born  in  Columbus,  Ga., 
in  1849.  He  was  peculiarly  susceptible  to  the  in 
fluences  of  nature,  and  imitated  on  the  piano  all  the 
sounds  he  knew.  Without  being  able  to  read  a  note 
he  could  play  from  memory  the  most  difficult  com 
positions  of  Beethoven  and  Mendelssohn. 

144.  Inventors.— The  first  Negro  scientist  to  come 
into  prominence  was  Benjamin  Banneker  of  Maryland, 
who  in  1770  constructed  the  first  clock  striking  the 
hours  that  was  made  in  America,  and  who  published 
annually  from  1792  to  1906  an  almanac  adapted  to 
the  requirements  of  Maryland  and  the  neighboring 
states.  Banneker  attracted  much  attention  by  his 


230    A   SHORT  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NEGRO 

knowledge  of  mathematics  and  astronomy,  and  his 
achievements  made  a  reputation  for  him  in  Europe 
as  well  as  in  America.  Up  to  the  present  time  there 
have  been  granted  to  Negroes  a  little  more  than  1000 
patents.  The  honor  of  being  granted  the  first  belongs 
to  Henry  Blair  of  Maryland,  evidently  a  free  Negro, 
who  in  1834  took  out  a  patent  for  a  corn  harvester. 
In  ante-bellum  days  a  rather  queer  situation  arose 
more  than  once.  If  a  slave  made  an  invention  he  was 
not  permitted  to  take  out  a  patent,  for  no  slave  could 
make  a  contract;  but  neither  could  a  slave's  master 
take  out  a  patent  for  him,  for  the  Government  would 
not  recognize  the  slave  as  having  the  legal  right  to 
make  the  contract  of  assignment  of  his  invention  to 
his  master.  At  the  present  time  Granville  T.  Woods 
of  Ohio  is  easily  in  the  lead  both  in  the  value  and  in  the 
variety  of  his  inventions.  He  took  out  his  first  patent 
in  1884,  and  up  to  the  present  time  has  taken  out 
nearly  sixty  patents.  Among  his  inventions  may  be 
found  valuable  improvements  in  telegraphy,  including 
a  system  for  telegraphing  from  moving  trains,  also  an 
electric  railway  and  a  phonograph.  Some  of  his  work 
has  been  sold  to  the  American  Bell  Telephone  Com 
pany.  Elijah  McCoy,  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  has  been 
granted  about  thirty  patents,  relating  particularly  to 
lubricating  appliances  for  engines.  Many  of  his  in 
ventions  have  long  been  in  use  on  the  locomotives  of 


NEGRO  ACHIEVEMENTS  231 

the  Canadian  and  Northwestern  railroads,  and  on  the 
steamships  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Mr.  McCoy  began 
work  as  early  as  1872  and  has  succeeded  in  reaping 
large  rewards  in  royalties  for  the  use  of  many  of  his 
inventions.  W.  B.  Purvis,  of  Philadelphia,  has  been 
granted  several  patents  having  to  do  with  paper  bag 
machinery.  F.  J.  Ferrell,  of  New  York,  deserves  men 
tion  for  his  valves;  and  J.  E.  Matzeliger,  of  Massa 
chusetts,  is  credited  with  being  the  pioneer  in  the  art 
of  attaching  soles  to  shoes  by  machinery.  An  inven 
tion  that  attracted  considerable  attention  a  few  years 
ago  was  that  of  a  rapid-fire  gun  by  Eugene  Burkins, 
of  Chicago. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  following  compilation  is  by  no  means  full  even  for  the 
present  work.  It  seeks  merely  to  mention  by  way  of  acknowl 
edgment  the  books  which  have  been  of  most  service  and  which 
are  cited  in  the  footnotes.  The  special  student  will  of  course 
consult  the  "Select  List  of  References  on  the  Negro  Question," 
published  by  the  Government,  Washington,  1906,  or,  better 
still,  "A  Select  Bibliography  of  the  Negro  American,"  edited 
by  Dr.  W.  E.  B.  DuBois,  Atlanta,  1905.  Even  these  works 
will  have  to  be  supplemented  for  the  last  six  years. 
COLLECTIONS  : — 

Atlanta   University   Studies   of   Negro   Problems,    especially 

No.  8,  The  Negro  Church,  No.  12,  Economic  Co-operation 

among  Negro  Americans,  and  No.  15,  The  College-Bred 

Negro  American. 

Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies  in  Historical  and  Political 

Science  (special  numbers  cited  below). 

Occasional  Papers  of  the  American  Negro  Academy,  especially 

No.  7,  Right  on  the  Scaffold,  or  the  Martyrs  of  1822,  by 

A.  H.  Grimke,  and  No.  n,  The  Negro  and  the  Elective 

Franchise. 

Publications   of   the    Committee   of   Twelve,    Cheyney,    Pa. 

(Special  numbers  cited  below.) 

Publications  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education:  Chap 
ters  from  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education: 
For  1900-1901,  Chapter  XVI,  The  Education  of  the  Negro, 
and  Chapter  XX,  The  Public  School  Problem  of  the  South; 
for  1904,  Chapter  VI,  The  Work  and  Influence  of  Hampton; 
for  1908,  Chapter  XXII,  Schools  for  the  Colored  Race. 
The  Pro-Slavery  Argument  (as  maintained  by  the  most  distin 
guished  writers  of  the  Southern  states).     Charleston,  1852. 
Statutes  at  Large,  being  a  collection  of  all  the  Laws  of  Virginia 
from  the  first  session  of  the  Legislature,  in  the  year  1619, 
by  William  Waller  Hening.     Richmond,  1819-20. 
233 


234  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  Statutes  at  Large  of  South  Carolina,  edited  by  Thomas 

Cooper.    Columbia,  S.  C.,  1837. 
Laws  of  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  compiled  by  Henry  Potter, 

J.  L.  Taylor,  and  Bart.  Yancey.    Raleigh,  1821. 
Catalogues  of  Howard,  Hampton,  Tuskegee,  and  the  other 

institutions  mentioned  in  Chapters  IX  and  X. 
William  T.  Alexander:  History  of  the  Colored  Race  in  America. 

Palmetto  Publishing  Co.,  New  Orleans,  1887. 
Ray  Stannard  Baker:  Following  the  Colour  Line.    Doubleday, 

Page  &  Co.,  New  York,  1908. 
James  Curtis  Ballagh:  White  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  Virginia, 

Nos.  VI-VII  of  Series  XIII  of  Johns  Hopkins  Studies. 

The  Johns  Hopkins  Press,  Baltimore,  1895. 
A  History  of  Slavery  in  Virginia,  extra  volume  XXIV  in 

Johns  Hopkins  studies.    The  Johns  Hopkins  Press,  Balti 
more,  1902. 
John  Spencer  Bassett:  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of 

North  Carolina,  Nos.  IV-V  of  Series  XIV  of  Johns  Hopkins 

Studies.    The  Johns  Hopkins  Press,  Baltimore,  1896. 
Anti-Slavery  Leaders  of  North  Carolina,  No.  VI  of  Series  XVI 

of  Johns  Hopkins  Studies.     The  Johns  Hopkins  Press, 

Baltimore,  1898. 

W.  O.  Blake:  The  History  of  Slavery  and  the  Slave-Trade,  Co 
lumbus,  O.,  1 86 1. 
J.  W.  E.  Bowen  and  I.  Garland  Penn:  The  United  Negro:  His 

Problems  and  his  Progress,  containing  the  Addresses  and 

Proceedings  of  the  Negro  Young  People's  Christian  and 

Educational  Congress,  held  August  6-n,  1902.     D.  E. 

Luther  Publishing  Co.,  Atlanta,  1902. 
William  Stanley  Braithwaite:   The  House  of  Falling  Leaves 

(Poems).   J.  W.  Luce  &  Co.,  Boston,  1908. 
Lyrics  of  Life  and  Love  (Poems).     H.  B.  Turner  &  Co., 

Boston,  1904. 
The  Book  of  Elizabethan  Verse  (Anthology).    H.  B.  Turner  & 

Co.,  Boston,  1906. 
The  Book  of  Georgian  Verse  (Anthology).    Brentano's,  New 

York,  1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  235 

The  Book  of  Restoration   Verse  (Anthology).     Brentano's, 

New  York,  1910. 

Edward  MacKnight  Brawley:  The  Negro  Baptist  Pulpit, 
American  Baptist  Publication  Society,  Philadelphia, 
1890. 

Walter  H.  Brooks:  The  Silver  Bluff  Church,  Washington,  1910. 
Andrew  Carnegie:   The  Negro  in  America.    The  Committee 

of  Twelve,  Cheyney,  Pa. 
Charles  Waddell  Chesnutt:  Frederick  Douglass,  A  Biography. 

Small,  Maynard  &  Co.,  Boston,  1899. 
The   Conjure    Woman    (Stories).     Houghton    Mifflin    Co., 

Boston,  1899. 
The  Wife  of  his  Youth,  and  Other  Stories  of  the  Color  Line. 

Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  1899. 
The  House  Behind  the  Cedars  (Novel).    Houghton  Mifflin 

Co.,  Boston,  1900. 
The  Marrow  of  Tradition  (Novel).    Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 

Boston,  1901. 
The  Colonel's  Dream  (Novel).     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co., 

New  York,  1905. 
John  R.  Commons:  Races  and  Immigrants  in  America.     The 

Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1907. 
D.  W.  Gulp:  Twentieth  Century  Negro  Literature.  J.  L.  Nichols 

&  Co.,  Naperville,  111.,  1902. 
William  Edward  Burghardt  DuBois:  Suppression  of  the  African 

Slave-Trade.    Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  New  York,  1896. 
The  Souls  of  Black  Folk  (Essays  and  Sketches).     A.   C. 

McClurg  &  Co.,  Chicago,  1903. 
John  Brown  (in  American  Crisis  Biographies).    George  W. 

Jacobs  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  1909. 

The  Quest  of  the  Silver  Fleece  (Novel).    A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co., 
Chicago,  1911. 

(See  also  Atlanta  University  Publications.) 
Paul  Laurence  Dunbar:  Life  and  Works,  edited  by  Lida  Keck 
Wiggins.    J.  L.  Nichols  &  Co.,  Naperville,  111.,  1907. 
(All  of  Dunbar's  work,  except  the  musical  sketch,  is  pub 
lished  by  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  New  York.) 


236  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

POEMS: — 

Lyrics  of  Lowly  Life,  1896. 

Lyrics  of  the  Hearthside,  1899. 

Lyrics  of  Love  and  Laughter,  1903. 

Lyrics  of  Sunshine  and  Shadow,  1905. 

SPECIALLY  ILLUSTRATED  VOLUMES  OF  POEMS: — 

Poems  of  Cabin  and  Field,  1899. 

Candle-Lightin'  Time,  1901. 

When  Malindy  Sings,  1903. 

Li'l'  Gal,  1904. 

Howdy,  Honey,  Howdy,  1905. 

Joggin'  Erlong,  1906. 

NOVELS: — 

The  Uncalled,  1898. 

The  Love  of  Landry,  1900. 

The  Fanatics,  1901. 

The  Sport  of  the  Gods,  1902. 

STORIES  AND  SKETCHES: — 

Folks  from  Dixie,  1898. 

The  Strength  of  Gideon,  and  Other  Stories,  1900. 

In  Old  Plantation  Days,  1903. 

The  Heart  of  Happy  Hollow,  1904. 

Uncle  Eph's  Christmas,  a  one-act  musical  sketch.     Wash 
ington,  1900. 

Hamilton  James  Eckenrode:  The  Political  History  of  Virginia 

during  the  Reconstruction,  Nos.  6,  7,  8  of  Series  XXII  of 

Johns    Hopkins    Studies.      The    Johns    Hopkins    Press, 

Baltimore,  1904. 

Albert  Bernhardt  Faust:  The  German  Element  in  the  United 

States.     Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  1909. 
Thomas  P.  Fenner:  Religious  Folk-Songs  of  the  Negro  (new 

edition).    The  Institute  Press,  Hampton,  Va.,  1909. 
John  Fiske:  Old  Virginia  and  her  Neighbors.   Houghton  Mifflin 

Co.,  Boston,  1899. 
Walter  L.   Fleming:  Documentary  History  of  Reconstruction. 

The  Arthur  H.  Clark  Co.,  Cleveland,  1907. 
Archibald  H.  Grimke:  Right  on  the  Scaffold,  or  the  Martyrs  of 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  237 

1822,  No.  7  of  the  Papers  of  the  American  Negro  Academy, 

Washington. 
Albert  Bushnell  Hart:  Negro  Suffrage,  a  contribution  to  the 

Boston  Transcript  of  March  24, 1906,  reprinted  as  a  pamph 
let  by  the  Niagara  Movement. 
Hinton  Rowan  Helper:  The  Impending  Crisis  of  the  South:  How 

to  Meet  It.    A.  B.  Burdick,  New  York,  1857. 
James  W.  Johnson  (?) :  Autobiography  of  an  Ex-Colored  Man 

(published  anonymously) .    Sherman  French  &  Co.,  Boston, 

1912. 
George  S.  Merriam:  The  Negro  and  the  Nation.   Henry  Holt  & 

Co.,  New  York,  1906. 
Kelly  Miller:  Race  Adjustment.     The  Neale  Publishing  Co., 

New  York  and  Washington,  1908. 
(See    also    Chapter   XVI,    The   Education  of  the  Negro,  in 

Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 

for  1900-1901.) 
Frederick  Law  Olmstead:  Journey  in  the  Seaboard  Slave  States. 

New  York,  1856. 

The  Cotton  Kingdom.    New  York,  1 86 1 . 
I.  Garland  Penn.    See  J.  W.  E.  Bowen  above. 
James  Jefferson  Pipkin:  The  Negro  in  Revelation,  in  History,  and 

in  Citizenship.    N.  D.  Thompson  Publishing  Co.,  St.  Louis, 

1902. 
James  Ford  Rhodes:  History  of  the  United  States  1850-1877. 

The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1906. 
L.  A.  Scruggs:  Women  of  Distinction.     Raleigh,  N.  C.,  1893. 
Wilbur  H.  Siebert:  The  Underground  Railroad  from  Slavery  to 

Freedom.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1898. 
James  M.  Simms:  The  First  Colored  Baptist  Church  in  North 

America.    Printed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.,  Philadelphia, 

1888. 

Alfred  Holt  Stone:  "  The  Negro  in  the  South  "  (article  in  Vol 
ume  X  of  The  South  in  the  Building  of  the  Nation.}      The 

Southern  Historical  Publication  Society,  Richmond,  1909. 
James  M.  Trotter:  Music  and  Some  Highly  Musical  People. 

Boston,  1878. 


238  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Booker  T.  Washington:  The  Story  of  My  Life  and  Work.  J.  L. 

Nichols  &  Co.,  Naperville,  111.,  1901. 

The  Negro  in  Business.  Hertel,  Jenkins  &  Co.,  Chicago,  1907. 
Up  from  Slavery:  An  Autobiography.    Doubleday,  Page  & 

Co.,  New  York,  1901. 
The  Story  of  the  Negro.  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York, 

1909. 
Phillis  Wheatley:  Letters,  edited  by  C.  Deane,  privately  printed, 

Boston,  1864. 
Poems  on  Various  Subjects,  London,  1773.    (This  is  the  rare 

first  edition.     The  latest  and  most  accessible  reprint  is 

that  published  by  the  A.  M.  E.  Book  Concern,  Philadel 
phia,  1909.) 
George  W.  Williams:  History  of  the  Negro  Race   in  America. 

G  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York  and  London,  1883. 
Richard  Robert  Wright:  Negro  Companions  of  the  Spanish 

Explorers.      (Pamphlet    reprinted    from    the    American 

Anthropologist,  Vol.  4,  April-June,  1902.) 
Richard  Robert  Wright,  Jr.:  Self -Help  in  Negro  Education. 

The  Committee  of  Twelve,  Cheyney,  Pa. 


INDEX 


Abolition,  30,  66-69,  73 

Adams,  John,  27 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  99 

Addison,  Nancy,  174 

African     Methodist     Episcopal 

Church,  160-163, 1 66, 168-169, 

176 
African     Methodist     Episcopal 

Zion  Church,  161-163, 169, 176 
African     Methodist     Protestant 

Church,  169 
Alabama,  41,  42,  43,  64,  in,  122, 

179-181 

Aldridge,  Ira,  106,  215-216 
Allen,  Richard,  158,  160 
Allen  University,  168 
Amendments  to  Constitution  of 

United  States,   113,    121-123, 

177,  179 
American  Baptfst  Home  Mission 

Society,  137-139, 170, 171, 172, 

175 
American     Baptist     Publication 

Society,  139 
American   Colonization   Society, 

73 

American  Missionary  Associa 
tion,  125,  133,  135-136,  i75 

Americus  Institute,  171 

Amistad  Incident,  97-99 

Anti-Slavery  Societies,  68,  99, 
108 


Antoine,  C.  C.,  127 
Arkansas,  62,  in,  122,  130 
Arkansas  Baptist  College,  170 
Arkwright,  Richard,  37 
Armstrong,  Samuel  C.,  General, 
Principal   of  Hampton   Insti 
tute,  133, 147, 149 
Ashmun,  Josiah,  73 
Assiento  Contracts,  5,  12 
Atlanta    Baptist    College,    137, 

138,  143,  144,  175 
Atlanta    University,    133,    135, 

136,  143,  144 
Attucks,  Crispus,  183 
Avery  Institute,  136 


B 


Balboa,  2 

Ballard  Normal  Institute,  136 

Baltimore,  103,  160 

Banneker,  Benjamin,  229 

Bannister,  E.  M.,  218 

Baptists,  Churches  and  Schools, 

i57, i 59-1 So,1 7o-i 7 2 
Barber  Memorial  Seminary,  141 
Batson,  Flora,  223-224 
Beach  Institute,  136 
Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  85-86 
Benedict  College,  138,  144 
Bennett,  Ned,  94,  95 
Bennett,  Rolla,  94 
Bennett  College,  139 
Berea  College,  135 


239 


240 


INDEX 


Bethel    Church     (Philadelphia), 

158 
Bethune,  Thomas   ("Blind 

Tom"),  229 

Biddle  University,  140,  175 
Bishop  College,  138 
Black  Codes,  121 
Blair,  Henry,  230 
Bode,  Louis,  174 
Bowler,  Jack,  92 
Braithwaite,     William    Stanley, 

2IO-2II 

Brazil,  74 

Brooks,  Preston  S.,  86 

Brown,  Anita  Patti  (Mrs.),  224 

Brown,  John,  82,  86-88,  104 

Brown,   Nellie   (Mrs.   Mitchell), 

223 

Brown,  Richard  L.,  220 
Brownsville,  189-191 
Bruce,  Blanche  K.,  127-128 
Bryan,  Andrew,  157 
Burke,  Edmund,  27 
Burkins,  231 
Burleigh,  Harry  T.,    224,   227- 

228 

Burns,  Anthony,  81-82 
Bush,  William  H.,  228 
Butler,  Benjamin  F.,  General, 


Cable,  George  W.,  192 
Calderon,  Spanish  minister,  98 
Calhoun,  John  C.,  72 
California,  76 

Calvert,    George,    Lord    Balti 
more,  8 

Carey,  Lott,  158 
Carney,  William  H.,  186 


Catholics,  141,  165 

Cato,  insurrectionist,  91 

Central  City  College,  171 

Central  Texas  College,  171 

Channing,  William  Ellery,  69 

Charles  V,  2 

Charleston,  51,  57,  93-94,  102, 

103,  130,  131 
Charlton,  Melville,  228 
Chavis,  John,  104 
Chesnutt,  Charles  Waddell,  192, 

203-207,  217 

Child,  Lydia  Maria,  68,  69 
Cinquez,  Joseph,  98 
Civil  Rights  Bills,  121,124 
Claflin  University,  139 
Clark  University,  139 
Clarkson,  Thomas,  27 
Clay,  Cassius,  70 
Clay,  Henry,  76 
Cochrane,  Admiral,  42 
Coffin,  Levi,  78,  79 
Coleridge-Taylor,  Samuel,  226 
Colored     Methodist     Episcopal 

Church,  162,  169 
Compromise,    Missouri,    64,    81, 

82 
Compromise  of  1850,  75-77,  81, 

86 

Congregationalists,  164-165 
Connecticut,  10,  29,  31,  32,  33, 

34,  177 
Constitution   of   United   States, 

35-36,67,81,121-123 
Cook,  W.  Marion,  227,  228 
Cooper,  James  W.,  146 
Corrothers,  James  D.,  214 
Cowper,  William,  25 
Cravath,     President,     of     Fisk 

University,  133 
Crompton,  Samuel,  37 


INDEX 


241 


Cuba,  74 

Curry,  J.  L.  M.,  133, 134 

D 

Davis,  Alexander,  127 
DeLarge,  Robert  C.,  127 
Delaware,  8,  9,  31 
Democrats,  178 
De  Narvaez,  3 
Denmark,  74 
Dew,  Professor,  58 
Dickey,  John  M.,  140 
Disfranchisement,  177-181 
District  of   Columbia,    76,    108, 

122 

Dixon,  Jeremiah,  66 
Douglas,  Stephen  A.,  80,  81 
Douglass,  Frederick,  87, 107-108, 

198,  216-217 
Douglass,  Joseph,  229 
Dred  Scott  Decision,  83 
DuBois,  W.  E.   Burghardt,  132, 

192,  207-210,  213 
Dunbar,    Paul     Laurence,    198- 

203 

Dunmore,  Lord,  28 
Dunn,  Oscar  J.,  127 


Eckstein  Norton  University,  171 
Education,     104-105,     132-154, 

167-176 

Edwards,  Sam,  96 
El  Caney,  189 
Elizabeth,  Queen,  4 
Elliott,  Robert  B.,  127-128 
Emancipation,  109-112 
Emerson,  Dr.,  83 
England    (and    Great    Britain), 


25,  30,  43,  Si,  72,  73,  80,  90, 

99,  1 08 

Episcopalians,  141, 165 
Estevanico,  3 
Exodus,  Negro,  129-131 


Fairbank,  Calvin,  79 

Fernandina,  Fla.,  79 

Ferrell,  F.  J.,  231 

First  African    Baptist    Church, 

157 
First    Bryan     Baptist     Church, 

157 
Fisk  Jubilee  Singers,   136,   138, 

225-226 

Fisk  University,  135,  136,  144 
Florida,  62,  in,  114,  122,  173 
Florida  Baptist  College,  170 
Florida  Institute,  170 
Floyd,  Silas  X.,  214 
Folk-lore,  192 
Folk-music,  192-194 
Foraker,  Senator,  190 
Fort  Pillow,  185-187 
Fort  Wagner,  115,  116,  186 
Fox,  Charles  James,  27 
France,  74 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  27 
Free  Negroes,   22,  39,   102-103, 

177 
Freedman's  Aid  Society,  139-140, 

175 

Freedmen's  Bank,  126 
Freedmen's     Bureau,     124-127, 

132 

Free-Soil  party,  68 
Fremont,  John  C.,  General;,  114 
Fugitive    Slave  Law,  39,  75-77, 

78 


242 


INDEX 


Gabriel,  92 

Galveston,  79 

Gammon  Theological  Seminary, 

140 

Gant,  Wheeling,  174 
Garrett,  Thomas,  79 
Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  67,  72, 

74,  87,  108,  220 
Gell,  Monday,  94 
General  Education  Board,  134 
George  R.  Smith  College,  140 
Georgia,  12,  29,  33,  39,  40,  41, 

45,  56,  59,  in,  H4,  122,  123, 


Giles,  Harriet  E.,  133 
Cleaves,  Richard  H.,  127 
Gloucester,  John,  158 
Gradual  emancipation,  40,  106 
Grandfather  Clause,  179 
Grant,  General,  187 
Greene,  Mrs.  (widow  of  General), 

37 
Greenfield,     Elizabeth     Taylor, 

106,  222-223 

Grimke,  Archibald  H.,  213 
Guadaloupe  College,  171 

H 

Hackley,  E.  Azalia  (Mrs.),  224 
Hampton     Institute,    133,    135, 

144,  147,  148,  149 
Hand,  Daniel,  133 
Hargreaves,  James,  37 
Harris,  Joel  Chandler,  192 
Harrison,  Hazel,  228 
Harth,  Mingo,  95 
Hartshorn  Memorial  College,  137 
Hawkins,  John,  4 


Hawkins,  William,  4 

Haygood,  Atticus  G.,  134 

Hayne,  Robert  Y.,  70-71,  95 

Hayti,  38,  108 

Helper,  Hinton  Rowan,  62 

Henry,  Patrick,  28 

Henson,  Josiah,  85 

Higginson,  Thomas  W.,  82,  116- 

117 

Holland,  74 

Houston,  Sam,  General,  75 
Howard,    O.    O.,    General,    125, 

i34,  172 
Howard    University,    134,    142, 

144,  176 

Howe  Institute,  171 
Howells,  William  Dean,  198,  203 
Hunter,  David,  114 
Hyers  Sisters,  223 


Illinois,  42,  43,  83 
Impending  Crisis,  The,  61-63 
Indiana,  43,  130 
Indians,  7 

Ingleside  Seminary,  140 
Insurrections,  91-97 
Inventions  (by  Negroes),  36 


Jack,  Gullah,  94 

Jackson,  President,  67 

Jackson  College,  138,  175 

James,  Duke  of  York,  5 

Jamestown,  2,  6 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  28,  34,  70 

Jeffreys,  184 

Jeruel  Academy,  171 

Johnson,  President,  87,  120,  122 


INDEX 


243 


Johnson,  Elijah,  73 
J<.  "mson,  James  W.,  21,4 
Johnson,  J.  Rosamond,  228 
Jones,  Absalom,  158 
Jones,  Sissieretta,  224 
Joseph  K.  Brick  School,  136 

K 

Kansas,  76,  81,  130 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  81,  86 
Kentucky,  40, 41, 43,  51 
Kittrell  College,  168 
Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle,  128 
Knoxville  College,  141 
KuKlux  Klan,  124, 128-129 


Lafon,  Thorny,  174 

Lane,  Lunsford,  99-102 

Lane  College,  169 

Langston,  John  Mercer,  214 

Las  Quasimas,  189 

Lawson,  Raymond  Augustus,  228 

Lee,  Bertina,  222 

Lee,  Robert  E.,  88,  113 

Le  Moyne  Institute,  136 

Leonard  Medical  School,  139 

Lewis,  Edmonia,  116,  220-221 

Liberia,  72-73 

Liberian    Exodus    Joint    Stock 

Company,  130 
Liberty  party,  68 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  109, 119, 120 
Lincoln  Normal  Institute,  136 
Lincoln  University,  105,  140 
Livingstone  College,  169 
Louisiana,  42,  43,  52,  103,  in, 

113,  121,  122,  127,  129,  179- 

180 


Louisiana  Purchase,  39,  41,  53, 

65 

Lovejoy,  Elijah  P.,  68,  87 
Lundy,  Benjamin,  66 
Lynch,  John  R.,  127 

M 

McCoy,  Elijah,  230-231 

McKee,  John,  175 

Maine,  64,  65 

Malays,  2 

Mansfield,  Lord,  Chief  Justice, 
26,  72 

Marsh,  J.  B.,  225 

Marshall,  J.  R.,  188 

Mary  Allen  Seminary,  141 

Mary  Holmes  Seminary,  141 

Maryland,  8,  18,  19,  29,  41,  53, 
80,  115,  179 

Mason,  Charles,  66 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,  65,  78 

Massachusetts,  6,  29,  32,  33,  34, 
44,57,61 

Matzeliger,  J.  E.,  231 

Meharry  Medical  School,  140 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  160 

Methodists,  Churches  and 
Schools,  156,  157,  175-  See 
African  Methodists,  etc. 

Mexico,  75 

Middle  Passage,  47 

Miles,  General,  189 

Miles  Memorial  College,  169 

Miller,  Kelly,  213 

Milliken's  Bend,  186 

Minnesota,  83 

Missionary  Endeavor,  132-146. 
See  also  American  Missionary 
Association,  American  Bap 
tist  Home  Mission  Society, 


244 


INDEX 


Presbyterian  Board  of  Mis 
sions,  Freedman's  Aid  Society, 
etc. 

Mississippi,  40,  41,  42,  43,  56, 
in,  121,  122,  123,  127,  129 

Mississippi  Industrial  College, 
169 

Missouri,  43,  62,  64-66,  83,  114, 
"5,  130 

Missouri  Compromise,  64,  66,  81, 
82 

Mobile,  103 

Monrovia,  130 

Moore,  Alice  Ruth,  199 

Moore,  Joanna  P.,  133 

Moors,  2 

Moravians,  156 

Morehouse,  H.  L.,  146 

Morgan  College,  140 

Morris  College,  171 

Morris  Brown  College,  168 

Mt.  Meigs  Institute,  153 

N 

Napoleon,  38 

Nashville,  convention  in,  129 

National  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Colored  Peo 
ple,  208 

National  Baptist  Publishing 
Board,  139, 159 

National  Negro  Business  League, 

153-154 

Nebraska,  81 

Negro,  the  name,  i,  population, 
17,  in  Revolutionary  War', 
28-30,  in  Civil  War,  113-115, 
free  Negroes  in  colonies,  22-24, 
effort  for  freedom  and  culture, 
89-108,  enfranchisement,  118- 


131,  church,  155-166,  self-help 
in  education,  167-176,  dis- 
franchisement,  177-181,  as  a 
soldier,  182-191,  achievements, 
192-231.  See  also  Slavery. 

New  Hampshire,  n,  33,  44 

New  Jersey,  9,  31,41,45 

New  Mexico,  76 

New  Orleans,  102,  103,  114,  122, 
167 

New  Orleans  University,  139 

New  York,  7,  9,  21,  29,  31,  34, 
40,45,61,62,156,177 

New  York  (city),  103,  104,  106 

North  Carolina,  n,  18,  29,  33, 
39,  44,  97,  101,  in,  122,  140, 
159,173,174,179-180 

Northwest  Territory,  33 

Nullification,  72 


Oberlin  College,  105 
Ohio,  41,  43,  44,  61,  78 
Oklahoma,  180 
Osceola,  91 


Packard,  Sophia  B.,  133 
Page,  Thomas  Nelson,  192 
Paine  College,  169 
Palmer  (Rev.  Mr.),  59 
Parker,  Theodore,  68,  82 
Pastorius,  Francis  Daniel,  9 
Paul  Quinn  College,  168 
Payne,  Bishop,  174 
Peabody,  George,  133 
Pennsylvania,  9,  17,  29,  33,  45, 

61,  77,  78, 161 
Personal  Liberty  Laws,  77 


INDEX 


245 


Peters,  John,  196 
Petersburg,  115,  185,  187 
Phelps,  John  W.,  General,  114 
Philadelphia,  103, 104, 159, 167 
Philander  Smith  College,  140 
Philanthropists,  Negro,  174 
Phillips,  Wendell,  68,  82,  87 
Pinchback,P.B.S.,i27 
Pitt,  the  younger,  27 
Planciancois,  Anselmas,  186 
Polk,  James  K.,  75 
Port  Hudson,  185 
Port  Royal  Agricultural  School, 

i53 

Porter,  Henry,  96 
Portugal,  74 
Poyas,  Peter,  94,  95 
Presbyterian  Board  of  Missions, 

140 

Presbyterians,  156,  164 
Price,  J.  C.,  216 
Prince,  183 

Punishment  of  slaves,  45 
Purvis,  W.  B.,  231 


Quakers,  9,  27,  39 


Rainey,  Joseph  H.,  127 
Ransier,  Alonzo  J.,  127 
Rapier,  James  T.,  127 
Reconstruction,  87,  118-124 
Republican  party,  68,  81,  178 
Revels,  Hiram  R.,  127 
Rhode  Island,  10,  18,  29,  32,  33 
Riley,  James  Whitcomb,  203 
Robert  Hungerford  School,  153 
Rockefeller,  John  D.,  134 


Rodin,  221 

Roger  Williams  University,  171 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  189,  190 
Rust  University,  139 


St.  Augustine's  Academy,  141 
St.  Augustine's  School,  141,  175 
St.  Frances'  Academy,  141 
St.    Joseph's    Industrial    School 

for  Colored  Boys,  141 
St.   Thomas  Episcopal   Church, 

157 

Salem,  Peter,  183 

Sandford  (in  Dred  Scott  case),  83 

Santiago,  189 

Santo  Domingo,  38,  74 

Scarborough,  William  S.,  212 

Scotch-Irish  element  in  popula 
tion,  71 

Scotia  Seminary,  140 

Secession,  72 

Selma  University,  170 

Seminole  Wars,  90 

Seneca  Institute,  171 

Servitude,  7,  10,  14-16 

Shaw,  Mary  E.,  174 

Shaw,  Robert  Gould,  116,  186 

Shaw  University,  138,  144 

Shore,  Ruth,  79 

Sierra  Leone,  72,  99 

Silver  Bluff  Church,  157 

Sinclair,  William  A.,  213 

Slater,  John  F.,  133 

Slave  Coast,  i 

Slave  Trade,  3,  4,  47,  79 

Slavery,  slave  coast,  i,  trade  3,  4, 
in  Virginia,  5,  in  Massachu 
setts,  6,  in  New  York,  7,  in 
Maryland,  8,  in  Delaware,  9, 


246 


INDEX 


in  New  Jersey,  9,  in  Penn 
sylvania,  9,  in  Connecticut, 
10,  in  Rhode  Island,  10, 
in  New  Hampshire,  n,  in 
North  Carolina,  n,  in  South 
Carolina,  n,  in  Georgia,  12, 
and  servitude,  14,  efforts 
for  restriction  of,  16,  status 
of  slave  before  Revolution, 
1 8,  effects  of  cotton-gin  on, 
37,  procuring  slaves,  46, 
Middle  Passage,  47,  price  of 
slaves,  50,  work  of  slaves,  50, 
slave  breeding,  53,  religion  of 
slaves,  54,  laws,  55,  punish 
ment  of  slaves,  56,  argument 
for,  58-59,  economy  of,  59-62, 
Southern  efforts  against,  70- 

71- 

See  Abolition 
Smalls,  Robert,  127 
Smith,  Adam,  26 
Snow  Hill  N.  &  I.  Institute,  153 
Somerset,  James,  26 
South  Carolina,  n,  12, 17,  29,  33, 

35,  39,  42,  44,  45,  51,  55,  56, 

57,  61,  70,  71,  in,  121,  127, 

130,  140,  179 

Southern  Education  Board,  134 
Spanish  Exploration,  2 
Spelman  Seminary,  137,  138,  144 
Stafford,  A.  O.,  214 
State  Rights,  71 
State  University,  171 
Stephens,  Alexander,  128 
Stevens,  Thaddeus,  1 20 
Stewart,  Charles,  25 
Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher,  84,  87 
Straight  University,  135 
Sumner,  Charles,  86, 120 
Sweden,  74 


Talladega  College,  135, 136,  143 
Tanner,  Henry  O.,  218-220 
Tappan,  Lewis,  99 
Tennessee,  43, 62, 115, 128 
Texas,  62,  75,  76,  80,  in,  123, 

129 

Tibbs,  Roy  W.,  228 
Tillotson  College,  135 
Tobey,  H.  A.,  Dr.,  198,  201 
Topeka  N.  &  I.  Institute,  153 
Tougaloo  University,  135 
Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  38 
Travis,  Hark,  96 
Truth,  Sojourner,  106-107 
Tubman,  Harriet,  78,  105 
Tupper,     President,     of     Shaw 

University,  133 
Turner,  Nat,  67,  99 
Tuskegee  Institute,  152-153,  199 

U 

Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  62, 84-85 
Underground  Railroad,  78 
Union  League,  122 
Utah,  76 
Utica  N.  &  I.  Institute,  153 


Van  Buren,  President,  98 
Vermont,  31,  40,  43,  44 
Vesey,  Denmark,  93-95 
Vicksburg,  convention  in,  80 
Virginia,  5,  17,  18,  19,  21,  23,  29, 
31,  34,  44,  51,  52,  53,  57,  61, 
70,  71,  80,  88, 97,  in,  113, 122, 
123,  140,  149,  179-180 
Virginia  Seminary,  171 


INDEX 


247 


Virginia  Union  University,  137, 

138,  149 
Voodooism,  155 
Voorhees  Industrial  School,  153 

W 

Wade-Davis  Act,  120 

Walden  University,  139 

Walker,  David,  69 

Walker  Baptist  Institute,  171 

Ward,  Samuel  Ringgold,  105 

Ware,  President,  of  Atlanta 
University,  133 

Warrick,  Meta  Vaux  (Mrs.  Ful 
ler),  221 

Washington,  Booker  T.,  149-152, 
153,  182,  188,  213,  214,  216- 
218 

Washington,  George,  28,  39 

Washington,  George  (Negro 
philanthropist),  174 

Washington,  Madison,  97 

Watson,  Brook,  Lord  Mayor,  195 

Watt,  James,  37 

Weir,  Felix,  229 

Wesley,  John,  26 


West  Virginia,  71,  113 
Western  University,  168 
Wheatley,  Phiilis  (Mrs.  Peters), 

1 06,  194-198 

White,  Clarence  Cameron,  229 
White,  Frederick  P.,  228 
White,  George  H.,  178 
Whitney,  Eli,  37 
Whittier,  John  G.,  68,  69 
Wilberforce,  William,  27 
Wilberforce  University,  105,  168 
Wiley  University,  139 
Will,  96 

Williams,  Bert,  216 
Williams,  George  W.,  29,  212 
Williams,  Nelson,  96 
Wilmot  Proviso,  76 
Woods,  Granville  T.,  230 


Young,  Charles  E.,  Major,  188 


Zion  Methodist  Church  (Phila 
delphia),  158 


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